i  1011 


-r  7 
/72-/<f/ 


AMERICAN  LUBRICANTS 

From  the  Standpoint  of  the  Consumer 


BY 


L.  B.  LOCKHART 

Consulting  and  Analytical  Chemist 


EASTON,  PA. 

THE  CHEMICAL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
1918 


LONDON,  ENGLAND:  TOKYO,  JAPAN: 

WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE,  MARUZEN  COMPANY,  LTD., 

14  HENRIETTA  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN,  W.  C.  11-16     NIHONBASHI    TORI-SANCHOME 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY  EDWARD  HART. 


PREFACE. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  aid  the  user  and  the  buyer  of 
lubricants  in  a  more  intelligent  selection  of  oils  and  greases.  The 
point  of  view  throughout  is  that  of  the  user  rather  than  that  of 
the  refiner. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  include  such  facts  and  figures  in 
regard  to  lubricants  as  will  best  serve  to  bridge  the  gap  between 
the  refiner  or  manufacturer  and  the  consumer.  Of  almost  equal 
importance,  a  conscientious  effort  has  been  made  also  to  exclude 
irrelevant  matter  so  as  not  to  obscure  the  main  facts. 

In  a  book  of  this  character  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  refiner,  the  seller,  the  buyer  and  the  user  of  lubricating  oils 
speak  the  same  language. 

The  language  of  the  American  oil  trade,  so  far  as  viscosity  is 
concerned,  is  that  of  the  Saybolt  Universal  Viscosimeter ;  con- 
sequently all  viscosities  given  in  this  book  are  with  this  viscos- 
imeter  at  100°  F.  unless  otherwise  specified,  except  that  the  vis- 
cosity of  cylinder  oils  is  taken  at  210°  F.  Likewise  the  Flash  and 
Fire  Tests  are  with  the  Cleveland  (or  similar)  Open  Cup.  Unless 
otherwise  stated,  all  temperatures  are  Fahrenheit,  and  the  Baume 
gravity  is  based  on  the  Bureau  of  Standards  scale  at  60°  F. 

The  specifications  given  are  in  all  cases  the  latest  obtainable. 

The  author  takes  this  occasion  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness, 
directly  and  indirectly,  to  the  published  data  on  petroleum  oils 
which  has  been  drawn  upon  freely. 

He  trusts  that  the  book  will  prove  of  practical  aid,  especially 
to  the  buyer  and  the  consumer  of  lubricants. 

L.  B.  LOCKHART. 
Atlanta,  Ga.,  August  I,  1917. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I — Crude  Petroleum 1-6 

The  Shift  in  Production — Characteristics  of  Crude 
Petroleum — Paraffin-Base  and  Asphalt-Base  Oils — 
Properties  of  Different  American  Crudes — Chemical 
Composition — Origin  of  Petroleum — Field  Production, 
Storage  and  Transportation. 

Chapter  II — The  Refining  of  Petroleum 7-12 

General  Considerations — Steam  Distillation — Group 
Separation — Gasoline — Kerosene — Lubricating  Oil  Dis- 
tillates— Cylinder  Stock — Fire  or  Destructive  Distilla- 
tion— Yields  from  Different  Crudes — Western  Lubri- 
cating Oils. 

Chapter  III— The  Refined  Products 13-20 

A.  Light  Distilled  Oils:     Gasoline  or  Naphtha— Kero- 

sene— Mineral  Sperm  Oil — Gas  Oil. 

B.  Distilled  Lubricating   Oils:     Paraffin  Oils— Neutral 

Oils — Spindle  Oils — Loom  Oils — Engine  Oils — 
Motor  Oils — Turbine  Oils — Air  Compressor  Oils 
—Paraffin  Wax. 

C.  Undistilled  Oils:     Cylinder  Stocks— Cylinder  Oils- 

Petrolatum  or  Vaseline — Car  Oils — Fuel  Oils. 

D.  Mixed  Oils:     Blended  Oils— Compounded  Oils. 

E.  Miscellaneous  Oils:     Rosin  Oils— Coal  Tar  Oils- 

Thickened  Oils— Shale  Oil. 

F.  Special    Properties    of    Mineral    Oils:      Stability- 

Coefficient  of  Expansion — Specific  Heat — Heat 
of  Combustion. 

Chapter  IV — Friction  and  Lubrication 21-34 

Unnecessary  Stresses — Two  Kinds  of  Friction — Solid 
Friction — Solid  and  Fluid  Friction — Fluid  Friction — 
Viscosity — Viscosity  and  Friction — Viscosity  and  Tem- 
perature— Oil  Lubrication — Oil  Testing  Machines — Cir- 
culating Oil  Systems — Bearings — Grease  Lubrication — 
Graphite  as  a  Lubricant — Mica  as  a  Lubricant. 


CONTENTS  V 

PAGE 

Chapter  V — Lubrication  of  Internal  Combustion  Engines  35-41 
Lubricating  Conditions — Stationary  Gasoline  Engines — 
Gas  Engines — Railroad  Section  Cars — Motor  Boats — 
Motorcycle  Engines — Gasoline  Tractors — Kerosene  En- 
gines— Kerosene  Tractors — Aeroplane  Engines — Diesel 
Engines. 

Chapter  VI — Automobile  Lubrication 42-53 

A.  Motor    Lubrication:      Mechanical    Considerations — 

Temperature  Conditions — What  Happens  to  the 
Oil — Effect  of  Carbon  Deposits — Removal  of 
Carbon  Deposits— Motor  Oil  Tests— Cylinder  Oil 
Specifications — Analyses  of  Some  Motor  Oils — 
Motor  Oil  Chart — Oil  Consumption. 

B.  General  Chassis  Lubrication:     Transmission  Lubri- 

cation— Differential  Lubrication — Worm  Drives — 
Roller  Bearings — Use  of   Cup  Greases — Electric  , 
Road  Vehicles. 

Chapter  VII — The  Lubrication  of  Electrical  Machinery. .     54-57 
Dynamos  and  Motors — Transformer  Oil — Electric  Ele- 
vators— Rotary    Converters — Vertical    Electric    Genera- 
tors— Electric  Railways. 

Chapter  VIII — The  Lubrication  of  Steam  Cylinders  and 

Steam   Engines 58-69 

Saturated  Steam  Conditions — Superheated  Steam  Con- 
ditions— Method  of  Applying  Cylinder  Oils — Cylinder 
Stocks — Cylinder  Oils — Analyses  of  Some  Cylinder 
Oils — Cylinder  Greases — Poor  Lubrication — Cylinder 
Deposits — General  Engine  Lubrication — Marine  En- 
gines— Steam  Turbines. 

Chapter  IX — The  Lubrication  of  Steam  Railways 70-82 

Locomotive  Cylinders  and  Valves — Saturated  Steam 
Cylinders — Cylinder  Deposits — Superheated  Steam  Cyl- 
inders— Conradson's  Apparatus  for  Studying  Cylinder 
Oils — Some  Results  with  Conradson's  Apparatus — 
Locomotive  Journals — Crank  Pins — General  Engine 
Lubrication — Car  Journals — Car  Oils — Analyses  of  Car 
Oils— Shop  Oil— Oil  Supplies. 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  X— The  Lubrication  of  Cotton  Mills  and  Other 

Textile  Mills 83-91 

Lubrication  and  Power  Losses — Spindle  Lubrication — 
The  Lubrication  of  Special  Spindles — Analyses  of  Some 
Spindle  Oils — Stainless  Oils — Sewing  Machine  Oils — • 
Loom  Oils — Analyses  of  Loom  Oils — General  Mill 
Lubrication—Shafting  Lubrication — Cylinder  Oils — Tur- 
bine Lubrication — Dynamo  Oil — Lubricating  Greases- 
Lubrication  of  Knitting  Mills. 

Chapter  XI — The  Lubrication  of  Miscellaneous  Plants 

and  Machines 92~99 

A.  Flour  Milling  Machinery. 

B.  Cotton  Oil  Mills. 

C.  Rolling  Mills:    Hot  Neck  Rolls— Cold  Neck  Grease 

—Roll    Gears— Cylinder    Oils— Yard    Cars    and 
Locomotives — General  Lubrication. 
D..  Miscellaneous:     Air  Compressors — Compressed  Air 
Machinery — Mine    and    Quarry    Machinery — Ice 
Machinery — Printing  Presses — Cutting  Tools. 

Chapter  XII — Physical  Methods  of  Testing  Lubricating 

Oils   100-107 

The  Determination  of  Viscosity  and  Its  Significance — 
Saybolt  Universal  Viscosimeter — Engler  Viscosimeter — 
Engler  Viscosity  with  Small  Amounts  of  Oil — Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  Pipette — Temperatures  at  which  Vis- 
cosity is  Measured — Fictitious  Viscosity — Absolute  Vis- 
cosities— Standardization  of  Viscosimeters — Mechanical 
Tests. 

Chapter  XIII— Physical  Methods  of  Testing  Lubricating 

Oils   (Continued)    108-121 

A.  Gravity    Test:      Its    Value    and    Meaning — Baume 

Gravity — Specific  Gravity — Method  of  Reading 
Hydrometers. 

B.  Flash   Test:     Its   Determination   and   Value — Open 

Testers  and  Closed  Testers— Cleveland  Open  Cup 
Tester — Pennsylvania  Railroad  Tester — Bureau 
of  Mines  Closed  Tester — Thermometer  Correc- 
tions. 

C.  Fire  Test. 

D.  Vaporization  Test. 

E.  Cold  Test.     Cloud  Test. 

F.  Color  and  Appearance. 

G.  Emulsification  Test. 


CONTENTS  Vll 

PAGE 

Chapter  XIV — Chemical  Methods  of  Testing  Lubricating 

Oils   •• . .  122-128 

A.  Free  Acid:    Amount  of  Sulphuric  Acid  Permitted — 

Maximum  Amount  of  Oleic  Acid — Acid  Number 
— Action  on  Metals. 

B.  Ash. 

C.  Soaps:     Detection  and  Determination. 

D.  Heat  Test,  or  Carbonization  Test. 

E.  Gasoline  Test. 

F.  Carbon  Residue  Test. 

G.  Distillation  Test. 
H.  Saponifiable  Fats. 
I.  Maumene  Number. 
J.  Iodine  Number. 

K.  Sulphur. 

Chapter  XV — Lubricating  Greases 129-135 

Types  of  Greases — Cup  Greases — Soda  Greases — Fiber 
or  Sponge  Greases — Non-Fluid  and  Soap-Thickened 
Oils — Axle  Grease — Petroleum  Grease — Analyses  of 
Some  Greases — Gillette's  Work  on  Lubricating  Greases. 

Chapter  XVI — Methods   for  Testing  and  Analysis  of 

Greases 136-141 

Preliminary  Examination  —  Physical  Tests  —  Melting 
Point — Flash  Point — Consistency — Water — Chemical 
Tests — Nature  and  Amount  of  Oils — Determination  of 
Soaps — Free .  Acid — Ash — Filler. 

Chapter  XVII — Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils 142-151 

Chemistry  of  Fatty  Oils — Fats  and  Oils — Saponifica- 
tion — Saturated  and  Unsatu rated  Fatty  Oils — Hydro- 
genation — Vegetable  Oils — Castor  Oil — Corn  Oil — 
Cottonseed  Oil— Linseed  Oil— Olive  Oil— Palm  Oil- 
Peanut  Oil— Rapeseed  Oil— Rosin  Oils— Blown  Oils— 
Degras  Oils— Animal  Oils— Bone  Fat  and  Bone  Oil- 
Horse  Oil— Lard— Lard  Oil— Menhadin  Oil— Neatsfoot 
Oil— Porpoise  Oil— Seal  Oil— Sperm  Oil— Tallows- 
Tallow  Oil— Whale  Oil. 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  XVIII— Methods  of  Testing  Fatty  Oils 152-158 

A.  Physical  Methods:     Specific  Gravity — Solidification 

Point  of  Oils  and  Fatty  Acids — Refractive  Index 
— Flash  Point — Viscosity. 

B.  Chemical  Methods:     Saponification  Number — Iodine 

Number — Maumene  Number — Free  Fatty  Acids 
— Reichert-Meissl  Number — Color  Tests — Lieber- 
mann-Storch  Reaction — Halphen  Test — Bechi  or 
Silver  Nitrate  Test. 

Chapter  XIX — Specifications  for  Fatty  Oils 159-171 

Castor  Oil— Cottonseed  Oil— Fish  Oil— Lard  Oils- 
Raw  Linseed  Oils — Boiled  Linseed  Oils— ^Neatsfoot 
Oil— Sperm  Oils— Tallows— Whale  Oil. 

Chapter  XX — Specifications  for  Cylinder  Oils 172-176 

Light  Cylinder  Oil — Dark  Cylinder  Oil — Oil  for  Ammo- 
nia Cylinders — Oil  for  Westinghouse  Engines — Cylin- 
der Oil  No.  3— Cylinder  Stock— Cylinder  Oil. 

Chapter  XXI — Specifications    for    Special    Engine    and 

Machine  Oils  and  Car  Oils 177-181 

War  Department  Specifications — Non-Carbonizing  Gas 
Engine  Cylinder  Oil — Cylinder  Oil  for  Kerosene  En- 
gines— High  Speed  Engine  Oil  for  Dynamos — Light 
Machine  Oil  for  Shafting — Heavy  Machine  Oil — Marine 
Engine  Oil — Pennsylvania  Railroad  Specifications — Par- 
affin and  Neutral  Oils— Well  Oil— 530°  Flash  Test  Oil. 

Chapter  XXII — Specifications  for  Cutting  Oils 182-184 

Navy  Department  Specifications — Paste  Cutting  Com- 
pound— Soluble  Cutting  Oils — Mineral  Lard  Oil — Rail- 
road Cutting  Oils — Lard  Oils — Screw  Cutting  Oils. 

Chapter  XXIII — Specifications    for    Greases,    Graphite, 

Boiler  Compound  and  Cotton  Waste 185-189 

Navy  Department  Specifications — Mineral  Lubricating 
Grease — Graphite  Lubricating  Grease — Flake  Lubri- 
cating Graphite — Ground  Amorphous  Graphite — Boiler 
Compound — Cotton  Waste. 


CONTENTS  IX 

PAGE 

Chapter  XXIV— Specifications  for  Burning  Oils 190-196 

Government  Specifications — Mineral  Sperm  Oils — Kero- 
sene— Railroad  Specifications — 150°  Fire  Test  Oils — 
300°  Fire  Test  Oils— Long  Time  Burning  Oil— 300° 
Burning  Oil— Headlight  Oil— Mineral  Seal  Oil. 

Chapter  XXV — Specifications     for    gasoline    and    fuel 

Oil  197-205 

Gasoline  for  Navy  Department — 88°  Gasoline — Deo- 
dorized Gasoline  for  Gas  Engine  Use — Deodorized 
Naphtha  or  Benzine— Gasoline— Fuel  Oils. 

Chapter  XXVI— Gasolines 206-211 

Gasolines  of  To-day — Straight  Refinery  Gasoline — 
Cracked  or  Synthetic  Gasoline — Casing-head  Gasoline — 
Analyses  of  Some  Gasolines — Value  of  Distillation 
Test — Bureau  of  Mines'  Analyses  of  Gasolines — Pro- 
posed Specifications  for  Motor  Gasoline — Gasoline  for 
Special  Uses — Fuel  Oils. 

Chapter  XXVII — Kerosene   212-216 

Distillation  Limits  of  Kerosene — Flash  Test — Analyses 
of  Kerosenes — Photometric  Tests — Suggestions  for 
Specifications — Kerosene  for  Use  in  Kerosene  Engines. 

Chapter  XXVIII— Tables 217-225 

1.  Viscosity  Tables,  Showing  Relation  of  Saybolt  Time 

to  Engler  Number. 

2.  Tables    for   Converting   Baume   Gravity  to    Specific 

Gravity,  etc. 

3.  Table  Showing  Baume  Gravity  Corrections  for  Tem- 

peratures above  60°  F. 

4.  Table  of  Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  Degrees. 

5.  Wholesale  Prices  of  Oils  and  Heavy  Chemicals. 

6.  Petroleum  Statistics. 

Index 227 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Central  Oiling  and  Filtering  System 28 

Curves  Showing  the  Relation  between  New  and  Filtered  Oil... 31 

Oil  Filter   32 

Operating  Temperatures  of  Automobile  Motor  Parts 44 

Sectional  View  of  Detroit  Lubricator 61 

Side  View  and  End  View  of  Car  Journal  Showing  Packing  in  Place. .  79 

A  Modern  Ring  Spindle 84 

Saybolt  Universal  Viscosimeter  102 

Viscosimeters  in  General  Use 104 

Correct  Method  of  Reading  Hydrometer 109 

Simple  Flash-Point  Apparatus 112 

Modified  Pensky-Martens  Flash  Tester 113 

Emulsifier  in  Use  at  the  Bureau  of  Standards 118 


CHAPTER  I. 


CRUDE  PETROLEUM. 

The  Shift  in  Production. — The  American  Petroleum  Industry 
began  with  the  sinking  of  the  first  oil  well  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1859,  two  years  after  oil  had  been  struck  in  Roumania.  The  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  was  confined  to  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  until  1876.  In  1891  the  Pennsylvania  fields  reached 
their  maximum  production  of  33,009,236  barrels  which  was  61 
per  cent,  of  the  country's  production  for  that  year.  The  Appa- 
lachian field  as  a  whole  reached  its  maximum  production  of 
36,295,433  barrels  in  1900  which  was  57  per  cent,  of  the  output 
for  that  year. 

In  1915  the  Appalachian  field  produced  only  22,860,048  bar- 
rels of  petroleum,  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  that  year,  and 
of  this  amount  only  8,726,483  barrels  were  actually  produced  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  The  estimated  production  for 
Oklahoma  in  1916  was  105,000,000  barrels  which  is  greater  than 
the  production  for  the  whole  United  States  for  any  year  prior 
to  1907.  In  1915  Oklahoma  and  California  together  produced 
65  per  cent,  of  the  country's  petroleum,  the  total  for  that  year 
being  281,104,104  barrels.  The  above  figures  refer  to  the 
marketed  production.  The  estimated  actual  production  for  1916 
was  292,300,000  barrels  for  the  United  States,  of  which  nearly 
20  per  cent,  was  used  for  fuel  oil. 

In  February,  1916,  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  after 
an  exhaustive  study  of  the  known  fields  in  the  United  States, 
estimated  that  the  fields  are  32  per  cent,  exhausted.  The  Appa- 
lachian field  is  70  per  cent,  exhausted.  Additional  statistics  are 
given  at  the  end  of  this  volume  (pages  223-225.) 

Characteristics  of  Crude  Petroleum. — Petroleum  or  crude  min- 
eral oil  is  a  dark  brown  liquid  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  com- 
pounds, some  of  which  would  be  gases  and  solids  if  separated 
from  the  mixture.  Small  amounts  of  sulphur,  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen are  usually  present. 

There  are  two  well  known  types  of  crude  petroleum:     (i) 


2  AMERICAN   IvUBRlCANTS 

Paraffin-base  oil  which  contains  much  light  oil  or  gasoline  and 
considerable  paraffin  wax,  like  the  Pennsylvania  oils,  and  (2) 
asphalt-base  oils  which  contain  very  little  light  oil,  or  paraffin  wax, 
but  contain  much  heavy,  low  cold  test  oil,  like  the  Texas  oils. 
A  third  type  is  also  recognized,  called  mixed-base  oil,  which  is 
intermediate  between  the  other  two  types.  Paraffin-base  oils  con- 
sist largely  of  compounds  containing  relatively  more  hydrogen 
than  is  present  in  the  asphalt-base  or  naphthene  oils. 

Crude  oils  are  valued  largely  on  the  basis  of  their  distillation 
products.  Oils  which  yield  much  gasoline  and  kerosene  on  simple 
distillation,  and  which  are  rich  in  paraffin,  bring  the  highest  prices 
at  the  wells,  though  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  sulphur  im- 
purities are  of  much  importance. 

Crude  oils  from  the  different  fields  of  the  United  States  have 
the  following  characteristics : 

Oils  from  the  Appalachian  field  (New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  eastern  Ohio)  are  mainly  paraffin 
base,  free  from  asphalt  and  objectionable  sulphur,  and  they  yield 
by  ordinary  distillation  high  percentages  of  gasoline  and  burning 
oils.  The  gravity  ranges  from  34°  to  48°  Be. 

Oils  from  the  L/ima-Indiana  field  (Indiana  and  northwestern 
Ohio)  consist  chiefly  of  paraffin  hydrocarbons,  though  containing 
some  asphalt,  and  are  contaminated  with  sulphur  compounds 
which  require  special  treatment  for  their  removal — usually  with 
copper  oxide  and  lead  oxide.  Some  lubricating  oil  distillates  are 
produced  in  this  field.  The  Canadian  oils  belong  to  this  group. 

Illinois  oils  are  of  mixed  asphalt  and  paraffin  base  and  differ 
much  in  specific  gravity  and  distillation  products.  The  sulphur 
which  is  generally  present  can  be  removed  without  special  treat- 
ment. 

Mid-Continent  oils  (from  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  northern  and 
central  Texas  and  northern  Louisiana)  vary  in  composition  with- 
in wide  limits,  ranging  from  asphaltic  oils  poor  in  gasoline  and 
kerosene,  to  paraffin  oils  of  low  asphalt  content  which  yield  much 
gasoline  and  kerosene.  Sulphur  is  present  in  varying  quantities 
in  the  low  grade  oils  which  in  certain  instances  may  necessitate 
special  treatment. 


CRUDE    PETROLEUM  3 

Oils  from  the  Gulf  field  (the  Coastal  Plain  of  Texas  and  Louis- 
iana) are  high  in  asphalt  and  low  in  gasoline.  Much  of  the  sul- 
phur is  present  as  sulphureted  hydrogen  which  can  be  removed 
by  steaming. 

Oils  from  Wyoming  and  Colorado  are  mainly  paraffin  base, 
though  there  are  some  heavy  asphaltic  oils  in  Wyoming. 

California  oils  are  chiefly  asphaltic  with  practically  no  paraffin 
and  with  more  or  less  sulphur.  The  chief  products  are  fuel  oils, 
kerosenes,  lubricants  and  oil  asphalt,  with  a  little  gasoline  from 
the  lighter  southern  oils.  The  gravity  ranges  from  12°  to  30°  Be. 
(See  "Petroleum  in  1915;"  p.  573,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.) 

Mexican  oil,  like  the  oils  from  the  Gulf  field,  are  of  low  grav- 
ity, 14°  to  19°  Be.,  and  they  are  high  in  sulphur  compounds.  The 
oil  is  largely  used  as  fuel  oil. 

The  oils  may  be  arranged  roughly  in  the  order  of  their  grav- 
ities, beginning  with  the  lightest  oil  (highest  Baume  gravity)  : 
Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Caddo  (Louisiana),  Kansas  and  Oklahoma, 
and  some  oil  from  California.  Very  heavy  oils  come  from  the 
Gulf  field  (southern  Texas  and  Louisiana),  from  Mexico  and 
from  most  California  fields. 

Chemical  Composition. — Petroleum  or  crude  mineral  oil  is  made 
up  chiefly  of  a  mixture  of  compounds  known  as  hydrocarbons, 
having  a  composition  of  from  12  to  14  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  and 
84  to  86  per  cent,  of  carbon.  These  numerous  hydrocarbons  vary 
markedly  in  boiling  point,  from  the  light  hydrocarbons  like  me- 
thane (CH4)  and  ethane  (C2H6),  found  in  natural  gas,  to  heavy 
solid  bodies  like  paraffin,  or  asphalt  and  viscous  oils  which  can- 
not be  distilled  without  decomposition. 

The  hydrocarbons  in  petroleum  belong  to  several  different 
chemical  series,  depending  on  the  amount  of  hydrogen  present 
with  the  carbon  or  on  the  way  the  carbon  is  combined  with  itself. 
Pennsylvania  petroleum  is  made  up  largely,  but  not  entirely, 
of  "paraffin"  hydrocarbons  which  have  the  general  formula 
CWH2«  +  2.  The  paraffin-base  oils  are  more  likely  to  yield 
important  percentages  of  gasoline  and  kerosene  on  simple  dis- 
tillation, than  the  asphalt-base  oils,  as  these  light  oils  belong 
chemically  to  the  "paraffins." 


4  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

The  hydrocarbons  in  the  asphalt-base  oils  consist  largely  of 
unsaturated  hydrocarbons  or  of  hydrocarbons  of  the  naphthene 
series  (polymethylenes).  These  hydrocarbons  have  the  general 
formulas  CnH2«  and  CWH2«_2.  Sometimes  still  less  hydro- 
gen is  present  as  in  some  California  oils  which  consist  partly  of 
aromatic  compounds  similar  to  those  from  coal  tar  with  the  gen- 
eral formula  C«H2W  _  6.  Besides  having  less  hydrogen  than  is 
present  in  the  "paraffins,"  the  naphthenes  (polymethylenes)  are 
cyclic  compounds  while  the  paraffins  are  "chain"  compounds.  In 
these  cyclic  compounds,  the  carbon  is  united  to  form  at  least  one 
ring,  usually  of  the  polymethylene  type,  such  as, 
CH2.CH2.CH2.CH2.CH2 


while  in  the  chain  compounds,  the  carbon  is  united  in  an  open 
chain,  such  as, 

CH3.CH2.CH2.CH2.CH3. 

The  above  discussion  does  not  cover  the  field  by  any  means, 
as  the  subject  is  very  complex,  several  series  being  present  in 
most  oils  in  varying  proportions.  Heavy  oils,  like  the  Texas  oils, 
usually  contain  a  large  proportion  of  naphthenes.  The  fact  that 
oils  are  different  in  composition  from  the  Pennsylvania  oils  does 
not  condemn  them  for  any  use,  but  necessitates  finding  out  ex- 
actly what  they  are  suitable  for  without  forcing  them  to  meet 
certain  artificial  requirements  which  were  devised  for  use  with 
other  oils. 

Heavy  Pennsylvania  lubricating  oils  consist  largely  of  naph- 
thenes or  hydrocarbons  of  the  C«H2W  and  the  CnH2W  _  2  series 
and  not  of  paraffins  as  generally  supposed.  In  other  heavy  oils 
the  series  CWH2«  _  4  may  also  be  present.  The  true  unsaturated 
hydrocarbons  of  the  olefine  series  are  not  present  to  any  important 
extent  in  crude  petroleum,  but  are  present  in  ordinary  cracked 
distillates.  Aromatic  hydrocarbons  are  present  in  limited 
amounts  in  most  petroleums,  and  in  considerable  amounts  in  Cal- 
ifornia petroleums. 

Prof.  Mabery,  who  has  done  valuable  work  on  the  composition 
of  American  petroleums,  has  shown  that  the  paraffin  hydrocar- 


CRUDE   PETROLEUM  5 

bons  have  a  low  lubricating  value.  He  has  also  shown  that  the  vis- 
cosity of  hydrocarbons  increases  very  rapidly  with  increase  in 
molecular  weight,  so  if  high  viscosity  products  are  to  be  made, 
distillation  must  be  conducted  with  as  little  decomposition  as 
possible  (/.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.,  pp.  992-1001,  1908). 

The  separation  of  the  individual  compounds  from  petroleum  is 
practically  impossible  on  account  of  the  boiling  points  of  the  com- 
pounds being  modified  by  presence  of  the  other  hydrocarbons  in 
the  mixture.  Separation  into  groups  of  compounds  with  certain 
boiling  limits  is  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  for  the  production  of 
such  commercial  products  as  gasoline,  kerosene  and  the  various 
lubricating  oils. 

Hydrocarbons  resist  chemical  action  to  a  considerable  degree, 
and  so  petroleum  oils  show  little  tendency  to  attack  metals.  Ani- 
mal and  vegetable  oils  show  considerable  tendency  to  form  acid. 

Origin  of  Petroleum. — Since  different  petroleums  have  very 
different  compositions,  there  is  naturally  a  great  variety  of 
theories  to  account  for  the  origin  of  crude  petroleum.  Of  the  in- 
organic theories,  which  depend  largely  on  the  action  of  water  on 
heated  metallic  carbides  somewhat  as  acetylene  is  produced  com- 
mercially, Clarke  says  (Data  of  Geo-Chemistry,  p.  641,  1908) 
that  "There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  any  important  oil  field 
derived  its  hydrocarbons  from  inorganic  sources." 

The  theories  which  accord  with  most  of  the  facts  are  the 
theories  of  organic  origin  from  the  decomposition  of  animal  and 
vegetable  remains.  Doubtless  all  types  of  organic  matter  have 
contributed  their  quota  in  varying  amounts.  Some  oils,  as  in 
certain  Texas  fields,  show  evidence  of  marine  animal  origin. 
The  considerable  percentages  of  nitrogen  compounds  present  in 
some  oils  strongly  indicate  animal  origin. 

The  original  differences  in  petroleums  have  been  further  modi- 
fied by  the  migration  of  the  oil,  or  its  filtration  through  different 
strata  which  changes  the  composition  of  the  oil. 

Field  Production,  Storage  and  Transportation. — Oil  is  reached 
by  bored  wells  varying  in  depth  in  different  fields  from  100  to 
over  4,000  ft.  If  the  gas  pressure,  is  sufficient,  a  flowing  well  or 


6  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

"gusher"  may  result,  particularly  when  the  well  is  first  brought 
in.  The  maximum  flow  is  usually  immediately  after  oil  is  struck, 
some  wells  coming  in  with  a  flow  of  thousands  of  barrels  per 
day,  as  the  famous  Beaumont  well  with  70,000  per  day. 

The  oil  is  run  into  large  metal  or  concrete  storage  tanks  in  the 
field,  and  is  sent  to  the  refineries  by  means  of  tank  cars  or  pipe 
lines.  Pipe  lines  run  from  the  Oklahoma  fields  to  the  Atlantic 
Seaboard  by  way  of  Chicago.  The  Oklahoma  fields  are  also 
tapped  by  pipe  lines  from  the  Gulf. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  REFINING  OF  PETROLEUM. 

For  the  manufacture  of  lubricating  oils  and  other  valuable 
commercial  products,  crude  petroleum  is  refined  by  distillation 
and  by  filtration  or  chemical  treatment.  Distillation  separates  the 
hydrocarbons  into  groups  of  different  boiling  points  which  find 
various  commercial  uses. 

When  petroleum  is  heated,  it  becomes  more  fluid  by  melting 
certain  substances  present  in  the  petroleum,  or  by  decreasing 
the  cohesion  between  the  liquid  particles.  If  the  temperature  is 
sufficiently  high,  some  of  the  crude  petroleum  will  evaporate  and 
can  be  condensed  so  as  to  yield  gasoline,  kerosene,  and  various 
distillates.  During  the  process  of  heating,  some  of  the  hydrocar- 
bons may  be  decomposed  or  "cracked"  by  the  heating,  yielding 
products  of  lower  boiling  point  than  those  present  in  the  original 
petroleum.  Such  decomposition  is  especially  likely  to  occur  if 
there  is  over-heating  or  prolonged  heating,  or  if  certain  sulphur 
compounds  are  present.  Distillation  of  even  the  lightest  of  the 
petroleum  products  cannot  be  effected  without  evidence  of  some 
decomposition.  The  heaviest  part  of  the  petroleum  cannot  be 
distilled  without  decomposition  with  the  formation  of  free  carbon 
or  "coke." 

In  distilling  lubricating  oils,  the  best  lubricants  are  obtained  by 
processes  which  prevent  prolonged  heating  or  overheating  of  the 
oil,  and  which  therefore  cause  the  least  amount  of  decomposition 
or  "cracking"  of  the  compounds  originally  present  in  the  crude 
oil. 

There  are  two  processes  in  general  use  for  the  distillation  of 
petroleum :  Fire  distillation  and  steam  distillation.  Steam  distil- 
lation will  be  described  first  and  in  some  detail  as  the  best  lubri- 
cants are  made  by  it  and  as  certain  lubricants,  such  as  steam- 
cylinder  oils,  can  be  made  in  no  other  way. 

Steam  Distillation. — The  crude  petroleum  is  put  into  large  hori- 
zontal, cylindrical  stills  of  250  to  1,200  barrels  capacity,  made 
of  sheet  steel  supported  on  brick-work.  Heat  is  applied  by  means 


8  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

of  direct  fire  under  the  still,  and  as  soon  as  the  heating  has  begun 
steam  is  introduced  by  means  of  perforated  pipes  reaching  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  oil  in  the  still.  The  steam  stirs  the  oil  and 
so  prevents  local  over-heating,  and  at  the  same  time  the  escaping 
steam  carries  off  the  oil  vapors  as  soon  as  formed  so  that  they 
do  not  condense  and  drop  back  into  the  hot  oil.  The  oil  vapors 
go  out  through  large  pipes  in  the  dome  of  the  still  and  are  con- 
densed in  a  vertical  tower  condenser.  In  this  condenser  the 
heavy  oils  condense  first  near  the  bottom  and  the  light  oils  con- 
dense last  near  the  top.  .  Thus  with  this  type  of  condenser  the  oil 
may  be  separated  into  groups  during  the  first  distillation.  With 
other  types  of  condensers  the  distillates  may  have  to  be  redistilled 
for  this  separation  into  groups. 

The  groups  so  collected  are,  in  the  order  of  their  boiling  points, 
(i)  crude  naphthas,  (2)  illuminating  oils,  (3)  gas  oil,  (4)  light 
lubricating  distillate,  (5)  heavy  lubricating  distillate,  and  (6) 
undistilled  residue.  The  distillation  is  usually  stopped  just  above 
600°  F.  The  residue  in  the  still  is  suitable  for  cylinder  stock  if 
Pennsylvania  or  other  paraffin-base  stock  has  been  used.  The 
various  distillates  are  distilled  to  rid  them  of  light  and  heavy 
ends  and  to  render  the  removal  of  the  paraffin  from  the  lubricat- 
ing distillates  less  difficult. 

The  use  of  steam  causes  the  distillation  to  proceed  at  a  tem- 
perature of  at  least  100°  F.  below  what  would  be  required  with- 
out the  use  of  steam.  Since  "cracking"  is  largely  prevented,  the 
yield  of  gasoline  and  kerosene  is  greatly  reduced  by  the  use  of 
steam.  Steam  distillation  is  applied  to  paraffin-base  oils  mainly, 
but  may  be  used  with  other  oils  as  well.  Paraffin-base  petroleums 
may  also  be  fire  distilled  instead  of  steam  distilled  in  order  to 
increase  the  yield  of  gasoline  and  kerosene. 

The  use  of  steam  not  only  gives  better  grades  of  lubricants, 
but  it  increases  the  yield  of  lubricating  oils  as  well,  particularly 
of  cylinder  stock.  A  partial  vacuum  may  be  used  along  with 
the  steam  to  aid  further  in  the  distillation  for  special  products, 
as  for  the  production  of  vaseline  or  special  filtered  cylinder 
stocks.  Vacuum  stills  and  continuous  stills  have  not  had  a  wide 
use  in  this  country. 


THE   REFINING  OF   PETROLEUM  9 

Instead  of  the  "tower"  condenser  for  separating  into  groups 
during  the  first  distillation,  the  "cut"  is  often  made  for  the  differ- 
ent groups  on  the  basis  of  the  gravity  of  the  distillate. 

The  groups  obtained  by  steam  distillation  may  be  treated  as 
follows : 

Gasoline. — The  crude  naphthas  are  treated  in  turn  with  strong 
(66°)  sulphuric  acid,  washed  with  water,  then  with  caustic  soda 
solution,  and  finally  with  water  again.  They  are  then  distilled 
with  steam  to  make  the  light  and  heavy  gasolines  or  naphthas  of 
commerce.  The  heavy  ends  are  added  to  the  crude  kerosene 
distillate. 

Kerosene. — The  crude  kerosene  is  steam  distilled,  the  first  part 
of  the  distillate  being  added  to  the  crude  naphtha  distillate  and 
the  last  part  or  "tailings"  being  added  to  the  gas  oil  distillate. 
The  main  distillate  is  chemically  treated  (see  gasoline)  and  is 
then  filtered  through  fuller's  earth  to  make  the  commercial  grades 
of  kerosene.  Only  "water  white"  kerosene  is  made  by  steam  dis- 
tillation, but  the  first  part  of  the  kerosene  distillate  from  fire 
distillation  of  petroleum  is  also  "water  white"  oil. 

Some  of  the  oils  heavier  than  kerosene  may  be  collected  sep- 
arately and  made  into  special  burning  oils,  such  as  mineral  seal 
oil  for  railroad  use. 

Lubricating-  Oil  Distillates. — These  are  distilled  a  second  time 
from  fire  stills  by  the  aid  of  steam,  the  undistillable  residue  going 
into  fuel  oil.  The  oils  are  chilled  and  filter-pressed  to  remove 
paraffin  wax.  They  may  be  partly  distilled  again,  or  "reduced" 
to  remove  the  light  oils  and  so  raise  the  viscosity  and  the  fire  test. 
The  light  oils  distilled  off  in  this  reducing  process  may  be  run 
into  the  gas  oil  distillate  or  made  into  thin  lubricating  oils  called 
non-viscous  neutrals.  The  reduced  lubricating  oils  are  filtered 
through  fuller's  earth  or  bone-black  to  improve  the  color  and 
remove  impurities  and  are  then  ready  for  use  as  "viscous 
neutrals." 

Cylinder  Stock. — The  residue  in  the  still,  if  a  paraffin-base  crude 
has  been  used,  is  a  steam  refined  cylinder  stock.  If  the  tempera- 
ture has  been  carried  well  above  600°  F.  during  the  distillation 


IO  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

most  of  the  paraffin  has  been  distilled  off.  To  make  a  filtered 
cylinder  stock,  the  residue  is  "cut  back"  with  crude  naphtha, 
chilled  and  filter-pressed  or  otherwise  filtered,  and  the  gasoline 
finally  recovered.  The  product  is  a  filtered,  low  cold-test  cylinder 
stock. 

Fire  or  Destructive  Distillation. — The  more  usual  method  of 
distillation  has  been  to  distil  without  the  aid  of  steam,  as  this 
gives  not  only  the  gasoline  and  kerosene  actually  present  in  the 
crude  oil,  but  additional  light  distillates  formed  by  "cracking" 
much  of  the  heavy  hydrocarbons. 

The  cracking  is  accomplished  by  partly  drawing  the  fire  after 
the  regular  gasoline  and  "water  white"  kerosene  distillates  are 
off,  so  that  the  oil  vapors  are  not  removed  from  the  still  as  soon 
as  formed  but  condense  on  the  upper  part  of  the  still  and  run 
back  into  the  hot  oil.  The  prolonged  and  excessive  heating  to 
which  the  oil  is  thus  subjected  breaks  down  the  heavy  hydrocar- 
bons into  lighter  hydrocarbons  which  distil  at  a  lower  temperature, 
greatly  increasing  the  yield  of  illuminating  oil  and  somewhat  in- 
creasing the  gasoline  output.  The  kerosene  thus  made  has  some 
color  and  a  low  flash  point,  and  much  of  it  goes  into  the  export 
trade  as  low  test  oil  or  is  used  as  "standard  white"  oil.  Con- 
siderable unsaturated  hydrocarbons,  or  defines,  are  present  from 
the  cracking.  These  light  distillates  are  chemically  treated  and 
redistilled  with  steam  as  stated  above  for  steam  distilled  oils. 

After  the  burning  oils  are  all  off,  the  "tar"  residue,  amounting 
to  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  the  original  crude,  is  run  into  "tar-stills" 
of  some  250  barrels  capacity  and  is  destructively  distilled  by  fire 
until  only  dry  coke  remains  in  the  still.  The  distillate  is  pressed 
to  remove  paraffin  wax  and  the  liquid  portion  is  used  as  paraffin 
oils  after  chemical  treatment  and  final  steam  fractionation. 

The  residue  from  the  distillation  is  coke  instead  of  cylinder 
stock. 

Yields. — While  the  amount  of  the  different  products  varies 
considerably  with  the  crude  used  and  with  the  details  of  the  re- 
fining process,  some  idea  can  be  gained  from  the  following  table 


THE;  REFINING  OF  PETROLEUM 


ii 


as  to  the  relative  proportion  of  commercial  products  in  different 
cases : 


Kind  of  crude  
Method  of  distillation  

Penn. 
Steam  and  fire 

Penn. 
Fire 

Okla. 
Fire 

.Per  cent 
I  ^    '2O 

Per  cent. 
2o—  2^ 

Per  cent. 
2c 

"*O—  AZ 

60   7^ 

2^—T.O 

oM"^K> 

1  ^   2O 

2c           ^°~ 

2 

1—2 

I 

TO    r  «; 

jO 

T  C 

o 

Coke  

1J 
o 

A 

Western  Lubricating  Oils. — The  so-called  western  oils  are  made 
from  crudes  which  contain  little  paraffin.  The  procedure  is 
similar  to  the  refining  of  Pennsylvania  oils,  except  as  the  pro- 
cedure may  be  modified  by  the  character  of  the  merchantable 
products  possible.  Most  of  the  California  crudes,  and  much  of 
the  Oklahoma  and  Texas  crudes  are  "topped"  for  the  removal  of 
gasoline  and  illuminating  oils,  and  the  undistilled  residue  is  sold 
directly  as  fuel  oil  without  further  refining.  Very  little  lubri- 
cating oil  is  produced  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Oklahoma  crude,  and  some  heavy  crudes  from  Texas  and  Cal- 
ifornia, are  now  worked  up  for  the  manufacture  of  certain  lu- 
bricants, such  as  cylinder  oil,  red  engine  oil  and  lighter  lubricating 
distillates.  The  distillates  have  higher  gravities,  lower  flash 
points,  higher  viscosities  at  low  temperatures  (70°  or  100°  F.), 
and  lower  cold  tests,  than  do  Pennsylvania  products  of  the  same 
class. 

The  residue  from  asphalt-base  oil  is  asphalt  instead  of  cylinder 
stock,  but  mixed  base  oil  may  yield  some  cylinder  stock  by  proper 
treatment. 

On  account  of  the  high  Baume  gravity  of  Oklahoma  crude  and 
the  large  percentage  of  gasoline  and  kerosene,  the  value  of  some 
Oklahoma  oils  ranks  close  to  Pennsylvania  crudes. 


REFERENCES  ON  AMERICAN  PETROLEUM. 


I.  C.  Allen  and  W.  A.  Jacobs:     "Petroleums  of  the  San  Juaquin  Valley 
of  California,"  Bur.  of  Mines  Bull.  No.  19,  1911. 


12  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

I.  C.  Allen  et  al. :     "Petroleums  of  California,"  Tech.  Paper  74,  Bureau 

of  Mines,  1914. 

Archbutt  and  Deeley:     Lubrication  and  Lubricants,  1912. 
Bacon  and  Hamor:    American  Petroleum  Industry,  2  Vol.,  1915. 
Clarke:     "Data  of  Geo-Chermstry,"  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Bulletins  No.  330 

and  6 1 6. 
D.  T.  Day,  Gilpin  and  Cram:     "The  Fractionation  of  Crude  Petroleum 

by  Capillary  Diffusion,"  Bull.  365,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1908. 
Gilpin  and  Bransky :    "The  Diffusion  of  Crude  Petroleum  through  Fuller's 

Earth,"  Bull.  475,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1911. 
Johnson  and  Huntley :    Oil  and  Gas  Production,  1916. 
Mabery:    Am.  Chem.  Jour.,  33,  p.  251,  1905;  /.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.,  28,  p.  415, 

1906,  and  30,  pp.  992-1001,  1908,  and  other  papers  on  the  composi- 
tion of  American  petroleum. 
Peckham,  S.  F. :     "Report  on  the  Production,  Technology  and  Uses  of 

Petroleum  and  Its  Products,"  U.  S.  Census  Reports,  1880  and  1885. 
Redwood :    Petroleum  and  Its  Products,  2  Vol.,  2nd  Ed.,  1906. 
"Reports  on  Petroleum  Production,"  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 
Robinson,  F.  C. :     "On  Petroleum  Refining,"  Met.  and  Chem.  Eng.,  pp. 

389-394,  1913- 

Sadtler :    Industrial  Organic  Chemistry,  4th  Ed.,  1912. 
Thorpe :    Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  IV,  1912. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  REPINED  PRODUCTS. 

A.  LIGHT  DISTILLED  OILS. 

Gasoline  or  Naphtha. — The  light  naphtha  of  88°  Be.  is  known 
as  petroleum  ether.  It  distils  at  a  lower  temperature  than  does 
gasoline. 

Gasoline,  motor  fuel,  or  heavy  naphtha  has  a  gravity  between 
56°  Be.  and  70°  Be.  It  is  obtained  by  the  simple  distillation  of 
petroleum,  or  by  "cracking"  petroleum  oils  by  some  of  the  recent 
processes  for  producing  "synthetic"  gasoline.  It  is  also  produced 
by  blending  certain  gases  from  natural  gas  with  heavy  gasoline 
to  make  the  so-called  casing-head  gasoline.  Commercial  gaso- 
line may  contain  products  ranging  from  40°  to  90°  Be.  While 
a  large  amount  of  very  volatile  constituents  facilitates  explosion 
in  the  motor,  the  extremely  volatile  products  increase  the  hazard 
in  using  and  in  shipping,  and  so  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  speci- 
fies maximum  pressure  limits  for  gasoline  shipped  by  common 
carriers. 

Kerosene. — The  gravity  of  kerosene  ranges  from  40°  to  48° 
Be.,  the  distillation  range  being  from  150°  to  300°  C.  (302°  to 
572°  F.).  For  Pennsylvania  water  white  oil  the  gravity  is  usu- 
ally above  46°  Be.  and  a  slightly  higher  boiling  point  limit  can 
be  used,  but  with  the  removal  of  more  of  the  lighter  oils  for  in- 
corporation into  gasoline,  some  of  the  heavier  oils  above  275°  C. 
must  also  be  left  out  in  order  to  give  a  product  of  good  candle- 
power. 

Several  grades  of  kerosene  are  generally  recognized :  Water 
white  oil  made  by  straight  distillation  of  the  crude,  and  prime 
white  oil  made  by  cracking  the  crude  during  distillation.  The 
former  commands  the  higher  price  and  is  considered  the  more 
satisfactory  product.  Much  of  the  latter  goes  into  the  export 
trade  as  low  flash  oil.  The  flash  point  of  kerosene  is  adjusted 
largely  to  meet  State  requirements.  Water  white  kerosene  is 
usually  150°  fire  test. 


14  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Mineral  Sperm  Oil  or  Mineral  Seal  Oil. — These  heavy  illumi- 
nating oils,  of  300°  F.  fire  test,  distil  off  after  the  kerosene.  They 
are  used  for  railroad  and  similar  illumination  where  steady  burn- 
ing and  only  small  illuminating  power  are  necessary.  The  grav- 
ity ranges  from  34°  Be.  to  42°  Be. 

Gas  Oil. — The  oils  distilled  between  the  illuminating  oils  and 
the  light  lubricating  oils  are  used  for  carbureting  water  gas  and 
other  gas  to  improve  the  illuminating  power.  This  gas  oil  is  a 
cheap  product.  In  re-distilling  the  lubricating  oil  distillates,  the 
light  ends  are  run  into  the  gas  oil.  This  product  is  sometimes 
used  for  fuel  oil. 

B.  DISTILLED  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

Paraffin  Oils. — These  oils  are  manufactured  by  fire  distillation 
(without  steam)  and  are  decolorized  or  bleached  by  treatment 
with  sulphuric  acid.  The  final  colors  are  yellow  or  red.  Some 
of  the  better  grade  products  are  filtered  instead  of  acid  treated. 
The  gravity  seldom  goes  above  30°  Be.  even  for  the  thinnest  oils, 
and  the  viscosity  is  low  as  compared  to  the  gravity  as  the  method 
of  distillation  tends  to  break  down  the  more  viscous  portion  of 
the  oil.  The  viscosity  ranges  from  that  of  heavy  kerosene  to 
300  Saybolt  at  100°  F.  The  light  oils  can  be  used  for  spindle 
oils  in  the  place  of  the  usual  non-viscous  neutrals.  The  heavy 
oils  are  used  for  engine  oils,  loom  oils,  motor  oils,  etc.  These 
oils  are  not  so  expensive  as  are  neutral  oils.  The  high  viscosity 
paraffin  oils  are  made  by  "reducing,"  that  is,  by  distilling  off  the 
lighter  oils  by  means  of  steam  and  fire. 

Neutral  Oils. — These  oils  are  manufactured  by  steam  distilla- 
tion, and  are  of  high  viscosity  in  proportion  to  their  gravity. 
After  the  wax  has  been  removed  from  the  mixed  lubricating  oil 
distillate,  the  oil  is  "reduced"  by  steam  distillation  to  remove  the 
lighter  oils.  These  light  oils  constitute  the  "non-viscous"  neu- 
trals, while  the  residue  from  this  final  distillation  constitutes  the 
"viscous"  neutrals. 

The  non-viscous  neutrals  usually  have  a  gravity  well  above 
30°  Be.  and  a  low  viscosity,  suitable  for  light  spindles.  These 
oils  are  considered  the  best  spindle  oils  as  they  do  not  stain  like 


THE:  REFINED  PRODUCTS  15 

paraffin  oils  if  properly  filtered.    These  oils  are  not  usually  acid 
treated.    The  viscosity  is  45  to  65  at  100°  F. 

The  viscous  neutrals  are  usually  slightly  above  30°  Be.  and 
have  viscosities  ranging  from  80  to  200  at  100°  F.  These  oils 
are  suitable  for  motor  oils,  turbine  oils,  gas  engine  oils,  air  com- 
pressor oils,  and  for  the  highest  grade  service.  The  color  is  re- 
duced by  repeated  filtration  through  fuller's  earth  instead  of  by 
acid  treatment.  In  order  to  make  the  heavier  oils,  the  viscous 
neutrals  are  blended  with  small  amounts  of  high-flash,  filtered 
steam-cylinder  stock.  Blended  oils  of  high  viscosity  may  have 
gravities  as  low  as  27°  Be.,  even  when  from  Pennsylvania  stock. 
Viscous  neutrals  are  also  made  from  other  stocks  than  Pennsyl- 
vania stocks,  in  which  case  the  gravities  will  be  much  lower  and 
the  viscosities  much  higher  than  can  be  obtained  from  Pennsyl- 
vania distillates  alone. 

Spindle  Oils. — These  are  low-viscosity  oils,  of  45  to  100  Saybolt 
at  100°  F.  They  may  be  light  paraffin  oils,  but  are  usually  and 
preferably  the  non-viscous  neutrals. 

Loom  Oils. — Neutral  oils  are  used,  but  the  use  of  paraffin  oils, 
similar  to  light  engine  oils,  is  common  practice.  The  oils  have 
been  acid  treated  in  most  instances. 

Engine  Oils. — Commercial  engine  oils  are  usually  the  heavier 
paraffin  oils.  The  heavier  oils  are  nearly  always  red,  but  the 
amount  of  color  depends  on  the  amount  of  acid  treatment  or  of 
filtration.  The  color  is  not  an  index  to  the  lubricating  quality. 
The  heavier  engine  oils  may  be  built  up  by  the  addition  of  cyl- 
inder stocks  to  heavy  distillates.  Viscous  neutrals  were  formerly 
much  sold  as  engine  oils,  but  high-gravity  neutrals  now  go  largely 
into  the  motor  oil  trade.  Low-gravity  western  neutrals  are  still 
sold  as  engine  oils.  For  circulating  oil  systems,  neutral  oils  are 
more  satisfactory  than  paraffin  oils  as  they  separate  from  water 
better. 

Motor  Oils. — For  lubricating  gasoline  engines  of  all  kinds,  the 
viscous  neutrals  are  considered  most  suitable.  While  Pennsyl- 
vania products  are  generally  given  preference,  oils  can  be  made 
by  the  same  process  from  other  crudes  with  equal  success.  For 


1 6  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

western  oils,  the  gravity  is  lower  and  the  viscosity  may  be  higher.' 
The  heavy  motor  oils  are  made  by  the  addition  of  special  steam- 
cylinder  stocks  to  viscous  neutral  oils.  Paraffin  oils  make  less 
desirable  motor  oils. 

Turbine  Oils. — These  are  similar  to  the  lighter  motor  oils.  The 
neutral  oils  separate  from  water  better  than  do  the  paraffin  oils 
and  so  are  more  desirable  in  actual  service. 

Air  Compressor  Oils. — These  are  similar  to  the  lighter  motor 
oils. 

Paraffin. — Solid  paraffin,  though  not  used  as  a  lubricant,  comes 
over  with  the  lubricating  oil  distillates  and  has  to  be  removed  by 
chilling  the  oil  and  filter  pressing.  Ordinarily  the  oil  distillates 
have  to  be  vaporized  twice  in  order  to  get  the  paraffin  in  con- 
dition to  filter  from  the  oil.  The  crude  "scale  wax"  is  further 
treated  to  make  the  paraffin  of  commerce,  the  treatment  consist- 
ing of  "sweating"  to  remove  oil  and  filtering  to  remove  tar  and 
asphalt. 

C.  UNDISTILLED  OILS. 

j 

Cylinder  Stocks  (Steam  Refined). — By  steam  distillation  of 
Pennsylvania  oils  and  other  paraffin-base  oils,  a  heavy  undis- 
tilled  oily  residue  is  left  in  the  still.  This  can  be  used  as  a  cyl- 
inder stock  after  removing  some  of  the  solid  impurities.  Steam 
refined  stocks  of  high  fire  test  (over  600°  F.)  are  not  filtered  as 
filtration  is  difficult  and  the  high  temperature  has  removed  most 
of  the  paraffin.  The  flash  test  ranges  from  about  550°  to  600°  F. 
and  the  fire  test  from  600°  to  700°  F.  Low  fire  test  stocks  are 
more  likely  to  contain  paraffin  and  high  test  stocks  to  contain 
tarry  matter.  Cylinder  stocks  should  be  free  from  tar,  so  the 
color  should  be  green  or  brown  and  not  black. 

The  viscosity  of  Pennsylvania  stocks  runs  from  140  to  280  at 
210°  F.  for  the  steam  refined  stocks.  The  highest  viscosity 
Pennsylvania  stocks  do  not  run  below  24°  Be.  in  gravity. 

Cylinder  Stocks  (Filtered). — Steam  refined  stocks  can  be  cut 
back  with  crude  gasoline  and  filtered  through  fuller's  earth  or 
boneblack  to  remove  carbon  and  coloring  matter.  The  highest 


REFINED  PRODUCTS  17 

fire  test  stocks  are  never  filtered,  the  fire  test  of  filtered  stocks 
rarely  being  over  600°  F.  Also  stocks  of  over  160  viscosity  are 
rarely  filtered.  Pennsylvania  stocks  do  not  run  less  than  26°  Be. 
Filtering  reduces  the  viscosity  of  cylinder  stocks. 

Bright  stocks  are  generally  low  cold  test  stocks  made  in  the 
preparation  of  petrolatum. 

Cylinder  Oils. — See  Compounded  Oils  below. 

Petrolatum  (Vaseline). — $pecial  Pennsylvania  oils  are  care- 
fully distilled,  with  steam  and  vacuum,  until  the  solid  uncrystal- 
lizable  paraffins  are  reached.  The  product  is  then  filtered  through 
boneblack  after  cutting  back  with  gasoline.  The  light  colored 
residue,  after  driving  off  the  gasoline,  is  a  pasty  mass  called 
vaseline.  The  darker  colored  oils  which  filter  later  are  used  as 
cylinder  stock. 

Car  Oils  (Black  0il,  Reduced  0il,  Well  Oil).— The  residue 
left  after  distilling  off  the  lighter  lubricating  oils  by  fire  distilla- 
tion is  a  black  oil  which  is  sold  in  the  unrefined  condition  as  car 
oil.  For  winter  car  oil,  the  distillation  can  be  stopped  earlier,  ©r 
the  residue  can  be  cut  back  with  some  light  distillate. 

Fuel  Oils. — Many  of  the  western  crudes,  as  from  Calif  ©rnia, 
are  sold  for  fuel,  either  as  they  come  from  the  wells,  or  after 
"topping"  or  "stripping"  to  remove  the  light  oils.  Also  light  and 
heavy  ends  from  redistilling  lubricating  oils  are  run  into  the 
fuel  oil.  Distilled  fuel  oils  are  really  heavy  gas  oils. 

D.  MIXED  OILS. 

Blended  Oils. — Blended  oils  are  made  by  mixing  mineral  oils, 
either  distillates  or  cylinder  stocks.  Sometimes  oils  are  "cut 
back"  by  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  low  viscosity  oil  to  re- 
duce the  viscosity  of  an  oil.  An  example  would  be  the  addition 
of  a  distillate  to  a  cylinder  stock  to  lower  its  viscosity  or  the 
addition  of  a  distillate  to  car  oil  to  change  a  "summer"  car  oil  to 
a  "winter"  car  oil.  Sometimes  the  viscosity  of  light  oils  is  "built 
up"  by  the  addition  of  heavy  oils,  as  in  adding  cylinder  stocks  to 
engine  oil  distillates  to  make  heavy  motor  oils. 

In  mixing  or  blending  oils  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  vis- 


1 8  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

cosity  of  the  mixture  is  always  decidedly  lower  than  would  be 
calculated  from  the  viscosities  of  the  two  oils  and  the  proportions 
taken.  Where  the  oils  are  very  different  in  viscosity  the  variation 
from  the  expected  viscosity  is  greatest.  The  viscosity  of  the 
mixture  may  be  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  below  the  expected  vis- 
cosity, but  it  is  usually  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  lower  than  the  cal- 
culated viscosity. 

The  gravities  are  as  would  be  expected,  but  the  flash  point  is 
lower  than  the  mean  of  the  mixture.  (See  Sherman,  T.  T.  Gray 
and  Hammerschlag  on  "A  Comparison  of  the  Calculated  and  De- 
termined Viscosity  Numbers  [Engler]  and  Flashing  and 
Burning  Points  in  Oil  Mixtures,"  /.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  13-17, 
1909 ;  also  T.  T.  Gray  on  "A  Comparison  of  the  Engler  and  Say- 
bolt  Viscosities  of  Mixed  Oils,"  8th  Int.  Cong.  Appl.  Chem,  X,  pp. 
153-158,  1913)- 

Compounded  Oils. — Compounded  oils  are  made  by  mixing  or 
blending  a  mineral  oil  with  a  fatty  oil.  The  chief  compounded 
oils  are  cylinder  oils,  made  by  dissolving  animal  oil  or  other  fatty 
oil  in  cylinder  stocks,  and  marine  engine  oils,  made  by  dissolving 
rape  oil  or  blown  rape  oil  in  mineral  oil.  Compounded  oils  for 
other  purposes  are  now  seldom  used. 

The  viscosity  of  a  compounded  oil  is  much  less  than  the  theo- 
retical viscosity  calculated  from  the  oils  used  in  compounding. 

E/ MISCELLANEOUS  OILS. 

Rosin  Oils. — These  are  the  heavy  oils  from  the  distillation  of 
rosin.  They  are  used  for  grease  making,  for  transformer  oils,  in 
printing  inks,  in  paints,  and  in  the  purified  condition  as  lubricating 
oils.  After  the  rosin  acids  have  been  largely  removed,  the  rosin 
oils  are  chiefly  special  hydrocarbons. 

Coal  Tar  Oils. — These  belong  to  the  aromatic  series  of  hydro- 
carbons (C«H2«_6)  which  are  cyclic  compounds.  They  are 
sometimes  used  in  lubricating  greases.  The  heavier  tars  may  be 
used  in  special  thick  greases  for  chains,  etc. 

Thickened  Oils. — Oils  may  be  thickened  by  the  addition  of  cer- 
tain soaps  to  form  greases,  or  with  certain  aluminum  soaps  to 


THE   REFINED   PRODUCTS  19 

form  mineral  castor  oils.     Caoutchouc  is  also  added  to  oils  to 
increase  their  apparent  viscosity. 

Shale  Oil.— Shale  oil,  from  the  destructive  distillation  of  oil- 
shales,  has  been  produced  to  an  important  extent  in  Scotland 
and  elsewhere.  The  large  quantities  of  oil-shales  in  Colorado 
and  other  states  may  be  similarly  developed  for  lighting,  power 
and  lubricating  purposes. 

F.  SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  MINERAL  OILS. 

The  advantages  of  petroleum  lubricating  oils  over  animal  and 
vegetable  oils  are  the  lower  cost  of  the  mineral  oils,  the  non-ox- 
idizing and  non-gumming  character  of  mineral  oils  and  their 
general  stability,  and  the  great  range  of  viscosity  obtainable. 
This  wide  range  in  viscosity  of  the  products  available  makes  a 
knowledge  of  the  viscosity  of  the  various  mineral  oils  not  only 
desirable  but  necessary  to  meet  different  lubricating  conditions. 
The  chief  disadvantage  of  mineral  oils  consists  in  the  non-ad- 
herence of  the  oils  in  presence  of  hot  water,  and  in  the  rapid 
decrease  in  viscosity  under  heat.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils  also 
lose  viscosity  rapidly  under  heat.  By  proper  attention  to  the 
temperature  at  which  an  oil  is  to  be  used,  a  mineral  oil  can  be 
obtained  which  will  meet  all  viscosity  requirements  at  the  desired 
temperature. 

Coefficient  of  Expansion. — Oils  expand  rapidly  with  rise  of 
temperature  and  so  decrease  in  specific  gravity,  the  amount  of 
expansion  for  oils  of  the  same  specific  gravity  being  the  same. 
The  expansion  for  gasolines  is  from  0.0006  to  0.0007  f°r  eacn 
degree  F. ;  for  kerosenes  0.0005 ;  for  spindle  oils  0.00045  > 
and  for  lubricating  oils  of  0.890  to  0.950  specific  gravity  (17° 
to  27°  Be.)  0.0004.  In  filling  cars  and  barrels  sufficient  space 
must  be  allowed  for  expansion  (see  Bureau  of  Standards  Circ. 
No.  57). 

Specific   Heat  of  Oils. — This   is   important  in   oil   refining  or 
wherever  oils  have  to  be  heated.     It  is  of  special  importance  in 
relation  to  the  cooling  action  of  oil  on  bearings.    Oils  do  not  vary 
3 


2O  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

greatly  in  this  particular,  the  specific  heat  usually  being  between 
0.45  and  0.50  as  compared  to  water  at  i. 

Heat  of  Combustion. — The  heat  of  combustion  varies  from 
about  16,000  to  22,000  B.  t.  u.,  the  average  being  about  19,000. 
The  heat  of  combustion  is  higher  for  the  light  oils.  (See  under 
specifications,  etc.,  for  Gasoline  and  Fuel  Oils  pages  204,  210  and 
211.) 


CHAPTER  IV. 


FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  power  applied  to  all  kinds  of  machines 
id  manufacturing  plants  is  used  in  overcoming  friction.  This 
power,  which  is  largely  lost  or  wasted  so  far  as  doing  useful 
work  is  concerned,  generally  amounts  to  from  20  per  cent,  to 
80  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  total  power  developed. 

Unnecessary  Stresses. — Important  sources  of  power  losses  are 
improperly  aligned  shafting  or  bearings,  and  tight  belts,  which 
cause  excessive  pressures  and  stresses  which  can  only  be  reduced 
by  mechanical  adjustment.  Properly  aligned  machinery,  bear- 
ings that  do  not  bind,  and  large  pulleys  writh  loose  belts  will 
greatly  reduce  power  waste  and  depreciation  of  machinery.  The 
first  step  in  the  reduction  of  friction  is  to  remove  unnecessary 
stresses  by  the  best  possible  adjustment  of  the  moving  parts. 

Two  Kinds  of  Friction. — In  the  operation  of  most  machinery 
two  kinds  of  friction  have  to  be  overcome  by  the  expenditure  of 
power:  Solid  friction  which  results  from  actual  contact  of  the 
moving  surfaces,  and  fluid  friction  which  is  due  to  the  resistance 
the  lubricant  offers  to  motion.  Since  solid  friction  is  much 
greater  than  fluid  friction,  lubricants  are  used  to  separate  the 
moving  parts  of  machines,  and  so  substitute  fluid  friction  for 
solid  friction.  With  smooth  bearings  at  high  speeds  and  under 
moderate  pressures,  this  substitution  is  practically  complete  with 
a  suitable  oil,  and  the  friction  developed  is  proportional  to  the 
true  viscosity  of  the  oil. 

Solid  Friction. — More  or  less  solid  friction  results  where  the 
lubrication  is  deficient  either  in  quality  or  quantity.  On  account 
of  the  minute  irregularities  of  bearings  and  journals,  and  on  ac- 
count of  the  tendency  of  metals  to  weld  or  "sieze"  under  the  in-, 
fluence  of  pressure,  the  resistance  to  motion  is  high  where  the 
metals  are  in  actual  contact.  Excessive  initial  power  is  required 
in  starting  a  machine  as  much  of  the  oil  has  been  squeezed  from 
between  the  bearings  so  that  the  surface  depressions  and  pro- 


22  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

j actions  interlace  somewhat  like  cogs.  After  the  machine  is 
in  motion,  if  the  lubricating  film  is  not  sufficiently  thick,  or  if  the 
bearing  is  not  smooth,  the  solid  projections  still  strike  or  press 
against  each  other  and  consequently  varying  degrees  of  solid  fric- 
tion result. 

The  effects  of  solid  friction  are  relatively  large  power  losses, 
heating  of  the  bearing,  lowering  of  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  by 
heating,  and  wear.  As  the  bearings  may  be  continually  rough- 
ened by  the  sliding  contact,  the  conditions  become  ideal  for  in- 
creased frictional  losses.  In  extreme  cases,  serious  seizing  of 
the  bearing  and  journal  may  occur  so  that  proper  lubrication  be- 
comes impossible  and  the  removal  of  the  bearing  becomes  neces- 
sary. In  most  cases,  the  effect  will  be  continued  wear  and  con- 
tinuous waste  of  power  through  excessive  solid  friction.  With 
good  lubrication,  serious  abrasion  is  entirely  absent,  and  wear 
and  solid  friction  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Solid  and  Fluid  Friction. — While  for  heavy,  slow-moving 
machines  solid  friction  is  generally  an  important  factor  in  power 
consumption,  in  the  usual  bearings  and  journals  at  normal  speeds 
and  pressures,  relatively  more  power  is  used  in  overcoming  re- 
sistance due  to  the  oil.  This  is  contrary  to  the  popular  belief 
which  ascribes  most  of  the  power  losses  to  wear  resulting  from 
actual  contact  of  the  bearing  and  journal.  If  the  lubricant  does 
not  keep  the  bearing  and  journal  apart  almost  entirely  during 
normal  running,  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  lubricant  or 
with  the  bearing. 

Fluid  Friction. — In  perfect  lubrication,  the  moving  part  is 
entirely  supported  or  "floated"  on  a  film  of  oil  which  is  of  suf- 
ficient thickness  to  keep  the  journal  and  bearing  apart  under  all 
reasonable  conditions.  To  maintain  such  a  film,  the  oil  must 
have  sufficient  viscosity  or  "body."  Pressure,  speed,  working 
temperature,  condition  of  the  bearings  and  method  of  oil  feed 
determine  the  most  advantageous  oil  to  use,  the  effect  of  these 
different  factors  being  as  follows : 

( i )   With  other  conditions  the  same,  high  pressures  require 


FRICTION   AND   LUBRICATION  23 

oils  of  higher  viscosities  than  do  low  pressures,  as  high  pressures 
tend  to  squeeze  the  oil  from  between  the  friction  surfaces. 

(2)  With  the  same  pressures,  a  fast  moving  journal  can  be 
satisfactorily  lubricated  with  a  thinner  or  less  viscous  oil  than 
can  a  slower  journal.    This  is  because  the  speedier  journal  sucks 
or  pulls  in  more  oil  between  the  moving  parts  and  so  aids  in 
maintaining  the  film. 

(3)  For  bearings  that  operate  at  high  temperatures,   as   on 
electric  motors,  an  oil  of  greater  viscosity"  is  required  than  for 
lower  wrorking  temperatures  under  similar  speeds  and  pressures. 
Raising  the  temperature  greatly  reduces  the  viscosity  of  an  oil. 

(4)  For  rough  bearings,  an  oil  of  high  viscosity  is  required  in 
order  to  maintain  a  thick  film  which  will  reduce  actual  contact 
of  the  bearing  and  journal  to  a  minimum. 

(5)  With  a  circulating  oil  feed,  or  force  feed,  oil  of  lower 
viscosity  can  be  used  on  account  of  the  increased  amount  of  oil 
reaching  the  bearing  which  partly  compensates  for  the  oil  squeezed 
out.     The  excess  of  oil  also  tends  to  reduce  the  temperature  of 
the  oil  film  and  cool  the  bearing  so  that  the  working  temperature 
is  lower  and  the  working  viscosity  is  higher  than  where  less  oil 
is  fed. 

In  general,  for  low  pressures  and  high  speeds  a  thin  oil  is  de- 
sirable ;  for  high  pressures  and  low  speeds,  a  thicker,  more  viscous 
oil  is  necessary.  Pressure  per  square  inch  is  meant  and  not  the 
total  pressure  on  the  bearing,  while  speed  refers  to  the  friction 
speed  of  the  contact  surfaces  and  not  to  the  actual  rate  of  rota- 
tion. For  rubbing  speeds  of  less  than  100  feet  per  minute,  the 
oil  film  does  not  form  properly  for  satisfactory  oil  lubrication. 

With  good  lubrication,  or  practically  perfect  lubrication,  the 
friction  is  chiefly  fluid  friction,  and  the  main  factor  in  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  friction  is  the  viscosity  of  the  oil,  so  far  as 
lubrication  is  concerned.  Obviously  then,  an  oil  which  has  just 
sufficient  viscosity  to  carry  the  load  under  all  reasonable  condi- 
tions, but  no  greater  viscosity,  is  the  ideal  lubricant. 

Viscosity. — By  the  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  meant  its  internal  fric- 
tion or  its  resistance  to  flow.  It  refers  to  the  same  property  as 


24  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

do  the  terms  body  and  cohesion.    For  true  liquids  viscosity  varies 
inversely  as  fluidity. 

Viscosity  is  usually  measured  by  noting  the  time  required  for 
a  given  volume  of  an  oil  to  flow  through  a  definite  sized  opening 
or  tube  under  a  definite  pressure.  With  commercial  viscosime- 
ters,  such  as  the  Saybolt  and  the  Engler,  the  tube  is  too  wide  and 
too  short  for  the  real  friction  of  the  oil  to  be  accurately  registered, 
consequently  such  instruments  do  not  show  the  true  viscosities 
of  oils,  though  such  instruments  serve  to  classify  oils  in  the 
order  of  their  viscosities.  For  high  viscosity  oils,  above  300  Say- 
bolt,  the  true  viscosities  are  practically  proportional  to  the  Say- 
bolt  viscosities,  but  for  low  viscosity  oils  the  viscosities  observed 
are  not  relatively  proportional.  Thus  an  oil  of  50  Saybolt  vis- 
cosity has  considerably  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  absolute 
(true)  viscosity  of  an  oil  which  reads  200  Saybolt.  Also,  the 
difference  between  two  low  viscosity  oils,  for  instance  of  50  and 
60  Saybolt,  is  much  greater  than  the  two  figures  would  indicate. 

Friction  and  Viscosity. — It  is  generally  accepted  that  under 
good  lubrication  conditions,  the  frictional  resistance  necessarily 
varies  with  the  pressure,  with  the  velocity  of  the  friction  parts, 
and  with  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  at  the  working  temperature. 
It  is,  however,  not  so  generally  accepted  that  under  definite  con- 
ditions of  speed  and  pressure,  the  coefficient  of  friction  is  solely 
dependent  on  the  viscosity  of  the  oil.  This  is  Ubbelohde's  theory 
which  he  has  substantiated  by  calculating  the  actual  coefficient 
of  friction  for  many  oils,  including  American  oils,  from  the  true 
viscosities  of  the  oils  (Pet.  Rev.,  27,  pp.  293  and  325-326;  Pe- 
troleum, 7,  pp.  773-779,  and  882-889;  cf.  Chem.  Abs.,  pp.  1986, 
2521,  and  2839,  J912;  and  pp.  248  and  2678,  1913).  Ubbelohde 
states  that  the  reason  this  relation  has  not  been  generally  recog- 
nized before  is  due  to  the  fact  that  commercial  viscosimeters  do 
not  give  the  true  viscosity,  or  readings  relatively  proportional  to 
the  true  viscosities.  It  has  been  the  practice  also  to  make  vis- 
cosity readings  at  temperatures  which  did  not  accord  with  work- 
ing conditions  and  so  the  relation  was  further  obscured. 

The  value  of  oils  as  lubricants  has  been  explained  by  many 


FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION  25 

observers  on  the  basis  of  such  properties  as  "oiliness,"  unctuosity, 
etc.,  alleged  to  be  independent  of  viscosity,  which  were  considered 
to  have  an  important  influence  in  forming  and  maintaining  the 
film.  While  these  explanations  have  not  been  absolutely  dis- 
proved, there  has  never  been  any  tangible  evidence  on  which  to 
base  any  solid  argument  in  favor  of  their  validity.  Factors  which 
are  important  are  adhesion  (outer  friction)  and  capillarity,  but 
according  to  Ubbelohde  all  oils  possess  sufficient  adhesiveness  as 
all  oils  cling  to  or  "wet"  all  solid  bodies. 

In  connection  with  this  contention  that  adhesion  is  always  ade- 
quate, and  that  there  is  no  "slip"  of  the  oil  where  it  is  in  contact 
with  the  metal,  and  that  the  outer  friction  of  the  oil  on  metal  is 
practically  infinitely  great  and  independent  of  the  wetting  or  ad- 
hesion, it  is  of  interest  to  note  the  statement  of  Prof.  Gill  (Rogers 
and  Aubert's  Industrial  Chemistry,  ist  Ed.,  p.  563)  that  in  per- 
forming friction  tests  with  a  friction  machine  the  effects  of  the 
oil  previously  used  on  the  machine  persist  for  about  eight  hours. 
This  indicates  that  the  oil  in  actual  contact  with  the  metal  is 
difficult  to  dislodge  even  when  the  "pores"  of  the  metal  surface 
are  at  a  minimum. 

Ubbelohde's  experiments  prove  that  oils  of  the  same  viscosity, 
whether  refined  oils  or  unrefined  oils,  distilled  oils  or  undistilled 
oils,  have  the  same  coefficient  of  friction,  without  regard  to  the 
origin  of  the  oil. 

Viscosity  and  Temperature. — As  the  temperature  rises,  viscosity 
decreases  rapidly.  This  makes  it  especially  important  that  the 
viscosity  be  taken  at  the  working  temperature,  or  sufficiently  near 
the  working  temperature  to  make  possible  an  adequate  compari- 
son of  the  working  viscosities  of  the  oils  used.  The  viscosity  of 
most  oil  distillates  is  now  taken  at  100°  F.  and  this  is  usually 
sufficiently  high  for  all  such  oils,  except  possibly  for  heavy  engine 
oils.  Western  oils  lose  viscosity  faster  below  100°  F.  than  do 
Pennsylvania  oils,  but  at  temperatures  above  100°  F.  the  drop  in 
viscosity  is  not  much  greater  for  western  distillates  than  for 
Pennsylvania  distillates. 

When  power  acts  to  overcome  friction,  heat  is  generated  as 


26  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

will  be  noted  from  the  rise  of  temperature  of  any  bearing  when 
the  journal  is  in  motion.  The  highest  temperature  observed  in 
a  bearing  is  necessarily  much  less  than  the  temperature  of  the 
oil  film  actually  supporting  the  load,  and  the  true  working  tem- 
perature of  the  oil  film  is  higher  than  generally  supposed,  with 
a  correspondingly  decreased  viscosity  for  the  oil. 

In  practice,  high  temperatures  from  friction  accompany  great 
power  losses  either  by  solid  or  fluid  friction.  Low  temperatures 
above  surrounding  temperatures  indicate  sma1!  power  losses. 

Rise  of  temperature,  even  of  a  few  degrees,  greatly  lowers 
the  observed  viscosity  and  the  lowering  of  the  true  viscosity  is 
even  greater  than  indicated  by  the  reading,  on  account  of  the  de- 
fects previously  noted  in  commercial  viscosimeters. 

Fatty  oils  (animal  and  vegetable  oils)  retain  their  viscosity 
somewhat  better  under  heat  than  do  mineral  oils.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  sperm  oil,  although  the  viscosity  of  sperm  oil  is 
relatively  low.  Castor  oil  and  blown  oils  are  the  only  fatty  oils 
having  high  viscosities  at  elevated  temperatures. 

One  of  the  functions  of  a  lubricant  is  to  cool  the  bearing  by 
absorbing  and  carrying  off  the  heat  from  the  friction  surfaces. 
Lubricating  oils  vary  very  little  in  their  heat  absorbing  capacity, 
consequently  where  considerable  heat  is  developed,  as  in  bearings 
around  a  steam  engine,  the  temperature  can  be  best  kept  down  by 
a  force-feed  or  by  a  circulating  oil  feed  which  feeds  more  oil  to 
the  bearing. 

While  the  working  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  primarily  the  viscosity 
corresponding  to  the  actual  temperature  of  the  supporting  film, 
the  viscosity  of  the  oil  at  the  other  temperatures  of  use,  such  as 
the  temperature  at  which  steam  cylinder  oils  are  handled  and  fed, 
may  be  important  and  should  receive  proper  consideration. 

For  a  further  discussion  of  viscosity  and  its  determination  see 
Index. 

Oil  Lubrication. — The  above  statements  in  regard  to  the  rela- 
tion of  friction  and  viscosity  apply  primarily  to  oil  lubrication. 
Successful  oil  lubrication  is  based  on  two  fundamental  principles : 

(i)   The  use  of  an  oil  of  sufficient  viscosity  to  maintain  a  film 


FRICTION   AND   LUBRICATION  27 

of  adequate  thickness  under  normal  working  conditions  plus  suf- 
ficient additional  viscosity  to  prevent  the  bearings  coming  in  con- 
tact during  abnormal  conditions.  Since  solid  friction  is  so  much 
greater  than  fluid  friction,  if  the  bearings  come  together  appre- 
ciably, power  will  be  used  up  and  more  or  less  wear  result.  A 
lubricant  which  does  not  keep  solid  friction  and  wear  to  a  min- 
imum does  not  meet  the  primary  requirements  of  a  lubricant. 

(2)  The  use  of  an  oil  of  only  sufficient  viscosity  to  meet  the 
above  conditions,  as  all  additional  viscosity  results  in  the  useless 
consumption  of  power.  At  high  speeds,  not  only  can  an  oil  of 
lower  viscosity  be  used,  but  any  additional  viscosity  results  in 
much  greater  power  losses  than  would  result  at  lower  speeds. 
Fluid  friction  is  roughly  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the 
velocity  of  the  friction  surfaces. 

Imperfect  lubrication  with  solid  friction  results  where  friction 
speeds  are  too  low,  or  too  little  oil  is  fed,  or  the  load  is  too  great 
for  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  under  the  working  conditions.  Con- 
sequently for  heavy  shafting  where  the  friction  speeds  are  low, 
and  in  similar  circumstances  with  other  machinery,  an  oil  of 
sufficiently  high  viscosity  should  be  used.  If  the  speed  is  low  a 
reasonable  excess  of  viscosity  will  result  in  little  lost  power. 

Purity  of  Oils. — Numerous  other  tests  are  applied  to  oils  besides 
the  viscosity  test.  These  are  necessary  to  insure  an  oil  that  will 
be  safe  to  use,  or  that  can  be  used  without  undue  loss  from 
evaporation  or  decomposition,  or  without  developing  materials 
which  would  interfere  with  the  oil  feed  or  change  the  viscosity. 
Refining  tests  are  applied  to  protect  the  bearings  from  the  pres- 
ence or  the  formation  of  injurious  or  gumming  materials.  These 
tests  ordinarily  have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  value  of  the  oil  so 
far  as  reducing  friction  is  concerned,  but  are  tests  of  the  sta- 
bility and  suitability  of  the  oil  for  the  special  conditions  under 
which  it  is  to  be  used. 

Oil  Testing  Machines. — Tests  made  on  the  usual  testing 
machines  are  generally  unsatisfactory  as  the  machines  do  not 
duplicate  working  conditions.  Satisfactory  results  can  be  had 
by  selecting  an  oil  from  the  physical  tests,  especially  the  viscosity 


28 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


/SUPPL.V  FROM 
PUMP 


ENQINE.  ROCM 


BRSEMENT    Fl_00« 


Typical  Central  Oiling  and  Filtering  System  with  Filter  on  Engine  Room  Floor  and 

Receiver  and  Automatic  Pump  Governor  in  Basement. 
(By  courtesy  of  The  Richardson-Phenix  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 


FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION  29 

tests  at  the  working  temperatures,  and  checking  the  selection  of 
the  oil  in  service  or  on  a  service  bearing. 

Important  contributions  have  been  made  by  Prof.  R.  H. 
Thurston  to  the  science  of  lubrication  through  his  development 
and  use  of  testing  machines.  Much  of  his  work  is  given  in  his 
"Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill  Work,"  pub- 
lished in  1879,  which  is  still  the  standard  treatise  on  this  subject. 

Circulating  Oil  Systems. — With  the  development  of  complex, 
heavy  machinery,  automatic  oiling  devices  have  come  into  use 
which  feed  the  oil  where  needed  without  continued  attention. 
Circulating  oil  systems,  operated  by  motors  or  by  steam  pressure, 
feed  oil  to  the  many  friction  points  of  Corliss  engines,  turbines, 
and  dynamos,  collect  the  excess  oil  as  it  flows  from  the  bearings, 
separate  entrained  water  by  appropriate  means,  filter  off  dirt  and 
precipitated  matter,  and  continue  the  oil  in  service  with  little 
loss.  Such  oil  may  circulate  through  the  system  500  times  or 
more  and  still  be  in  good  usable  condition,  as  a  good  oil  does 
not  wear  out,  though  it  naturally  darkens  in  service  even  with 
proper  filtration.  A  poor  oil  may  develop  acid  under  exposure  to 
heat  and  air,  or  may  emulsify  with  water  and  increase  in  vis- 
cosity. 

In  circulating  systems,  and  with  ring  oilers  and  other  devices 
for  flooding  bearings  with  excess  oil,  an  oil  of  lower  viscosity 
can  be  used  than  where  just  sufficient  oil  is  fed,  as  the  surplus 
oil  serves  to  cool  the  bearing. 

The  importance  of  ample  lubrication,  such  as  afforded  by 
flooded  bearings  and  by  bath  lubrication,  can  hardly  be  stressed 
too  much  on  account  of  the  great  reduction  in  friction  losses 
through  the  free  use  of  an  oil  of  the  right  viscosity. 

In  connection  with  forced- feed  lubrication,  the  following  quo- 
tations from  Technological  Paper  No.  86  of  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  by  W.  H.  Herschel,  are  of  interest  : 

"Lubricating  oils  are  used  to  reduce  friction,  and  their  effectiveness 
depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are  applied  as  well  as  upon  their 
quality.  To  obtain  the  best  results  there  must  be  an  abundant  supply  of 
the  lubricant.  It  has  thus  become  recognized  as  good  practice,  especially 
for  high  speed  machinery,  to  use  a  forced-feed  lubricating  system,  the  oil 


3O  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

being  pumped  from  a  settling  tank  through  the  bearings  and  allowed  to 
flow  back  to  the  tank.  A  filter  is  included  in  the  circuit. 

"It  has  been  found  that  oils  do  not  wear  out  mechanically  and  may 
be  used  over  and  over  again.  Thurston  says,  'A  mineral  oil  is  usually 
just  as  good  after  use  as  before,  apart  from  the  impurities,  which  are 
removed  by  filtering.'  Similarly  Sabatie  and  Pellet  conclude,  'The  appar- 
ent result  of  all  these  different  tests  is  that  a  used  oil,  received  in  good 
condition  and  filtered  with  care  to  rid  it  of  the  material  which  it  may  con- 
tain in  suspension,  preserves  its  different  properties  almost  intact." 

"It  is  on  account  of  the  necessity  for  filtering,  upon  which  emphasis 
has  been  laid,  that  an  emulsifying  oil  cannot  be  used  in  a  circulatory 
system.  An  emulsion  may  clog  the  filter  and  result  in  damage  to  the 
bearings,  due  to  the  failure  of  the  oil  supply." 

(See  also  Emulsification  Test,  pages  117-121.) 

The  accompanying  curves  show  tests  made  on  oil  after  use  in 
a  circulating  system  for  one  and  one-half  years  of  continuous 
day-and-night  operation.  The  circulation  was  at  the  rate  of  150 
gallons  per  hour,  or  1,800  barrels  per  month,  three  barrels  of  new 
oil  being  added  to  the  system  per  month.  The  oil  was  used  to 
lubricate  134  points  on  several  engines  and  compressors.  The 
upper  curve  shows  the  coefficient  of  friction  on  a  Thurston  Rail- 
road Lubricant  Tester  at  360  revolutions  per  minute  for  new  oil 
and  for  filtered  oil.  The  middle  curve  shows  the  temperature  of 
the  bearings  in  this  test  with  the  two  oils.  The  bottom  curve 
shows  the  viscosities  of  the  new  and  the  filtered  oil  at  various 
temperatures  with  an  Olsen  viscosimeter.  The  oil  increased  in 
gravity  from  0.895  to  0.903  during  the  period  of  use.  The  in- 
crease in  gravity  is  without  special  significance. 

Bearings. — The  design  and  fit  of  bearings  greatly  influence  the 
quality  of  the  lubrication.  Bearings  should  be  so  constructed,  by 
proper  grooving  or  otherwise,  and  by  proper  location  of  the  oil 
feed,  that  ample  oil  is  drawn  in  or  sucked  in  by  the  moving 
journal.  In  order  to  secure  the  best  possible  conditions  for  lub- 
rication, the  bearing  should  be  smoothe  and  of  softer  metal  than 
the  journal.  While  an  excessively  soft  bearing  would  not  offer 
sufficient  resistance  to  the  load,  a  soft  bearing  soon  beds  or  flows 
to  fit  the  journal  so  as  to  support  the  load  at  all  points. 


O'S 

OiZ 

E 

£ 

r; 

004 

f> 

^ 

\ 

CoemoENT  Of  FRICTION  Cu*vtS 
fl^NcwOc 
8-Po»?i«-.co  Ou  FROM  PETEJISO*  r,wTt»? 

^ 

— 

s 

\ 

\ 

v 

\ 

X 

x^ 

-^ 

•^5 

^- 

"^^  —  . 

1  -, 

'  ~^ 

< 

'  —  ~- 

i5T 

—--. 

**  

3                'CO                 ~0                   «0                  110                 iw                  xo                 14,                  }eo 

Fto^os  Pf?E.5S<j<?£  PE«»  ^<a  '«-CM 

TEMPERATURE.  CC??VE.S 
R--NE.wO)L 
B'-PoRiFED  OH.FHOM  PETERSON 


POUNDS  PRE.3S<J*E.  Pg^  SQ  ivci 


V 


P-NE.W  On 


-L_. 


o^  O'L   Z!t  ( 


Curves  Showing  the  Relation  Between  New  and  Filtered  Oil. 
(By  courtesy  of  The  Richardson-Phenix  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


AUTOMATIC 

WATER 
SEPARAT 
APPARATUS 


The  Cross  Oil  Filter  "Style  B.M 
(By  courtesy  of  Burt  Mfg.  Co.,  Akron,  O.) 

The  area  of  bearings  is  designed  to  secure  proper  load  per 
unit  area.  The  area  of  the  bearing  should  be  just  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  load  successfully  under  all  conditions  with  the 
grade  of  oil  to  be  used,  as  any  excess  area  will  increase  the 
friction  loss  unless  a  thinner  oil  is  substituted.  For  high  speeds, 
the  friction  is  practically  independent  of  the  load  and  is  propor- 
tional to  the  area  of  the  friction  surfaces. 

The  proper  fit  of  bearing  for  the  lowest  coefficient  of  friction 
is  obtained  by  having  the  radius  of  the  journal  slightly  less  than 


FRICTION   AND   LUBRICATION  33 

the  radius  of  the  bearing  to  give  space  for  the  oil  film  which  is 
usually  0.0002  to  0.003  mcn  thick. 

Ball  bearings  and  roller  bearings  are  generally  lubricated  with 
oil  and  thin  grease,  respectively,  and  offer  less  frictional  resist- 
ance than  do  other  bearings. 

Grease  Lubrication. — Good  lubrication  with  oils  is  difficult  to 
attain  with  slow  moving  machines  under  high  pressures  on  ac- 
count of  the  tendency  of  the  lubricant  to  squeeze  from  between 
the  friction  surfaces  faster  than  it  is  fed  in  by  the  motion  of  the 
journal.  Since  greases  do  not  squeeze  from  bearings  readily,  but 
maintain  a  relatively  thick  film  under  pressure  even  when  the 
journal  is  still,  they  are  especially  suited  for  slow  or  intermittent 
work  where  the  loads  are  heavy.  Sometimes  oils  of  high  vis- 
cosity can  be  used  successfully  for  such  work.  For  use  on  gears, 
greases  are  especially  adapted  as  the  unit  pressures  are  high  and 
the  rubbing  speeds  slow. 

Greases  are  not  suitable  for  high  friction  speeds  on  account  of 
their  greater  frictional  resistance  as  compared  to  oils,  though 
they  do  not  offer  excessive  resistance  to  flow  at  low  speeds.  The 
coefficient  of  friction  is  higher  for  greases  than  for  oils,  which 
is  another  way  of  saying  that  greases  offer  more  resistance  to 
motion  than  oils  do.  Thin  greases  and  greases  of  low  melting 
point  do  not  offer  as  great  frictional  resistance  as  stiff  greases 
of  high  melting  point. 

Greases  are  also  often  used  instead  of  oils  for  lubricating  in- 
accessible parts  of  machines,  for  general  convenience  in  applica- 
tion, for  reducing  the  consumption  of  lubricant,  to  prevent 
splashing  and  to  secure  automatic  feed. 

Graphite  as  a  Lubricant. — Flake  and  amorphous  graphite  have 
been  widely  used  in  conjunction  with  oils  and  greases  for  lubri- 
cation. The  function  of  the  graphite  seems  to  be  to  build  up  the 
depressions  in  the  friction  parts  and  so  make  a  smoother  bearing. 
The  effect  is  to  reduce  the  friction,  to  make  possible  the  use  of  a 
much  thinner  oil  and  to  reduce  the  consumption  of  lubricant.  For 
very  heavy  work  and  slow  speeds,  graphite  is  extremely  valuable 


34  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

in  preventing  abrasion  and  seizing,  and  for  reducing  solid  friction, 
as  in  steam  valves  and  cylinders. 

Graphite  also  seems  to  form  a  veneer  or  coating  which  carries 
heavy  loads  without  offering  much  resistance  to  motion.  Only 
very  finely  divided  graphite  should  be  used,  especially  with  bear- 
ings having  small  clearance.  Very  small  amounts  of  graphite 
give  the  best  results. 

Considerable  work  has  been  done  by  Prof.  Mabery  on  the 
effect  of  graphite  on  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  lubricants,  using 
oils  mixed  with  0.35  per  cent,  of  deflocculated  (Acheson)  graph- 
ite, with  favorable  results  (/.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Chem.,  pp.  115-123, 
1910,  and  pp.  717-723,  1913;  also  /.  Frank.  Inst.,  Vol.  169,  pp. 
317-328).  Other  authorities  also  report  decreased  frictional  re- 
sistance where  graphite  is  added  to  oils. 

Mica  as  a  Lubricant. — In  general,  the  action  o.f  mica  in  a  suit- 
able state  of  fineness  is  similar  to  the  action  of  graphite  in  being  a 
surface  evener.  Mica  has  been  used  largely  in  certain  greases. 


CHAPTER  V. 


LUBRICATION  OF  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES. 

Most  explosive  engines  using  liquid  fuel  work  on  the  four 
cycle  principle.  The  oil  reaches  the  cylinder  wall  either  by 
being  splashed  or  sprayed  on  the  wall  below  the  piston.  In  some 
cases  the  oil  is  supplied  by  a  force  feed,  but  usually  the  oil  is 
largely  splashed  by  the  moving  parts  in  the  crank-case.  The  oil 
gets  into  the  cylinder  above  the  piston  either  by  being  rubbed  up 
by  the  piston,  or  by  being  sucked  in  past  the  piston  rings  during 
the  stroke  preceding  the  compression  stroke,  that  is,  during  the 
inlet  stroke.  In  the  stroke  succeeding  the  explosion  or  firing 
stroke  the  lubrication  must  be  effected  solely  by  the  small  amount 
of  unburned  oil  remaining  on  the  cylinder  walls  and  by  the  oil 
actually  left  on  the  piston  rings. 

In  order  to  secure  proper  lubrication  an  oil  must  be  used  which 
resists  decomposition  at  a  high  heat,  which  leaves  little  undesir- 
able residue  when  exposed  to  heat  or  when  burned,  and  which 
has  sufficiently  high  viscosity  to  lubricate  but  not  sufficient  vis- 
cosity to  prevent  the  rapid  formation  of  an  oil  film  or  seal.  While 
at  the  high  temperatures  which  the  oil  attains  the  viscosity  is 
very  greatly  reduced,  yet  the  very  high  speed  of  the  piston  and 
the  relatively  small  pressure  exerted  by  a  vertical  piston  against 
the  cylinder  wall  makes  an  oil  of  very  high  working  viscosity 
unnecessary. 

Excessive  viscosity  will  prevent  the  oil  film  from  forming  rap- 
idly after  the  firing  stroke.  However,  owing-  to  the  fact  that  the 
oil  is  used  to  seal  the  gap  between  the  cylinder  wall  and  the 
moving  piston  or  piston  rings,  as  well  as  for  actual  lubrication, 
an  oil  of  a  little  too  high  viscosity  gives  better  results  than  an  oil 
of  too  low  viscosity.  A  low  viscosity  oil,  especially  with  loose 
piston  rings,  does  not  seal  the  cylinder  properly  and  so  results  in 
hot  gases  leaking  past  the  piston  rings  and  contaminating  the  oil 
in  the  reservoir  or  sump,  exposing  the  oil,  which  is  repeatedly 
splashed  on  the  cylinder  wall  below  the  piston,  to  fairly  high 
temperatures  for  long  periods.  Also  the  use  of  an  oil  of  low  vis- 
4 


36  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

cosity  may  make  necessary  the  use  of  excessive  amounts  of  oil 
with  the  possibility  of  increased  carbon  formation  in  the  cylinder. 

So  far  as  temperature  conditions  are  concerned,  the  oil  has 
two  kinds  of  temperature  to  withstand:  the  temperature  just  be- 
low the  flash  point  of  the  oil  (200°  to  400°  F.)  repeatedly  for  long 
periods  of  time  as  the  oil  is  splashed  on  the  cylinder  walls  below 
the  piston  and  runs  back  into  the  oil  reservoir,  and  temperatures 
of  200°  to  800°  F.  in  the  cylinder  above  the  piston  where  the  oil 
is  readily  consumed.  The  first  condition  results  in  more  or  less 
decomposition  and  blackening  of  an  unstable  oil  so  that  good  re- 
sults can  hardly  be  expected  when  such  an  oil  finally  gets  into  the  i 
cylinder.  The  second  condition  must  finally  result  in  the  more  / 
or  less  complete  combustion  of  the  oil  as  no  oil  could  stand  the 
excessive  temperatures  within  the  cylinder,  but  doubtless  the  oil 
remains  partly  unconsumed  for  a  somewhat  longer  period  than 
generally  supposed.  This  would  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  metal 
on  one  side  of  the  oil  film  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  the 
oil  itself  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  consequently  the  layer  of 
oil  next  to  the  metal  is  partly  protected  from  the  heat  by  the 
outer  layer  of  oil.  This  could  not  result  in  delaying  actual  com- 
bustion of  the  oil  very  long,  but  a  fraction  of  a  second's  delay 
means  the  difference  between  actual  lubrication  and  an  absence 
of  lubrication.  When  the  oil  finally  burns,  little  carbon  residue 
should  be  formed. 

Except  for  the  smaller  high-speed  pistons,  as  in  automobile 
engines  with  small  cylinders,  the  oil  seal  is  relatively  as  important 
as  actual  lubrication  and  should  be  so  considered.  In  fact,  with 
a  proper  oil  seal  formed  on  the  piston  rings,  sufficient  lubrication 
will  usually  result. 

Automobile  Engines. — See  chapter  on  Automobile  Lubrication. 

Stationary  Gasoline  Engines. — The  oil  used  should  ordinarily 
have  a  flash  test  of  about  400°  F.,  and  should  preferably  be  a 
straight  distillate  (viscous  neutral).  This  mineral  oil  distillate 
may  be  blended  with  a  very  small  amount  of  filtered  cylinder 
stock,  or  well-refined  cylinder  stock,  for  use  in  heavy  en/gines. 
Distillation  of  the  oil  should  therefore  show  very  little  carbon 


LUBRICATION    OF   INTERNAL,   COMBUSTION    ENGINES  37 

residue  unless  the  oil  is  for  extra  large  engines  y<hich  require  an 
extra  heavy  oil.  The  gravity  is  preferably,  but  not  necessarily, 
above  26°  Be.,  though  oils  of  any  gravity  may  be  used  success- 
fully if  of  the  proper  viscosity. 

Oils  which  turn  black  on  heating  to  their  flash  points  for  15 
minutes  or  show  considerable  sediment  on  subsequent  standing 
will  tend  to  form  excessive  amounts  of  carbon  in  use  (see  Heat 
Test).  All  oils  show  some  darkening  when  heated  to  high  tem- 
peratures. 

Medium  oils  of  220  to  270  viscosity  at  100°  F.  are  suitable  for 
small  gasoline  engines.  For  large  gasoline  engines  heavy  oils  of 
250  to  450  viscosity  should  be  used.  For  engines  operating  in 
cold  climates  the  coM  test  should  be  sufficiently  low  to  meet  prac- 
tical conditions.  Engines  having  force  feed  can  use  the  higher 
viscosity  oils  to  advantage,  while  the  high  viscosity  oils  are  re- 
quired for  air-cooled  engines. 

Gas  Engines. — The  regular  medium  and  heavy  oils  just  men- 
tioned are  suitable  for  explosive  gas  engines. 

Railroad  Section  Cars. — In  these  cars  the  oil  is  usually  fed  by 
mixing  with  the  gasoline.  An  oil  of  at  least  350  viscosity  at  100°  / 

F:  is  required.    Usually  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  oil  is  added  to          ' 
the  gasoline. 

Motor  Bloats. — The  engines  are  either  two-cycle  or  four-cycle. 
For  the  two-cycle  engines,  medium  motor  oils  of  200  to  270  vis- 
cosity at  locr  F.  are  required.  Where  the  oil  is  fed  by  mixing 
with  the  gasoline  an  extra  heavy  oil  of  350  viscosity  or  over  is 
necessary.  For  tfye  four-cycle  engines  a  somewhat  heavier  oil 
should  be  used  than  is  necessary  for  the  two-cycle  engines,  such 
as  a  medium  oil  of  220  to  350  viscosity,  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  engine  cylinder.  Where  the  oil  is  fed  separately  from  the 
fuel  a  thinner  oil  can  be  used  than  with  automobile  engines  on 
account  of  the  efficient  water  cooling. 

Motorcycle  Engines. — The  cylinder  oil  is  fed  by  mixing  with 
the  gasoline  or  by  some  other  method.  Usually  about  I  pint  of 
the  lubricant  is  added  to  5  gallons  of  gasoline.  The  oil  should 


38  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

be  a  heavy  or  extra  heavy  motor  oil  of  350  to  800  viscosity  at 
100°  F.    Such  an  oil  is  suitable  for  all  types  of  feed. 

Gasoline  Tractors. — Such  tractors  usually  require  heavier  cylin- 
der oils  than  the  correspondingly  rated  automobile  engines,  on 
account  of  the  continuous  heavy  duty  required  of  tractors.  Oils 
of  about  the  grade  specified  for  stationary  gasoline  engines  above 
work  satisfactorily. 

Kerosene  Engines. — Explosive  engines  using  kerosene  as  fuel 
require  heavy  oils  for  lubrication.  Owing  to  the  necessity  of 
pre-heating  the  fuel  charge  and  the  introduction  of  water  into 
the  cylinder  to  aid  combustion,  the  consumption  of  oil  is  heavy. 
The  temperature  of  the  gases  rises  to  nearly  3,000°  F.,  while  the 
temperature  of  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston  head  ranges  from 
300°  to  800°  F. 

Suitable  oils  for  kerosene  engines  should  have  a  viscosity  of 
450  to  650  at  100°  F.  and  a  flash  test  of  400°  F.  The  viscosity 
of  these  cylinder  oils  might  preferably  be  taken  at  210°  F.,  as 
the  oil  in  the  crank-case  is  usually  kept  this  hot,  but  of  course  a 
correspondingly  lower  figure  for  the  viscosity  would  then  be  re- 
quired. A  suitable  oil  can  be  made  by  blending  a  large  amount 
of  cylinder  stock  of  good  grade  with  a  suitable  heavy  distillate. 
Where  the  engine  is  constructed  for  using  water  in  the  cylinder 
with  the  fuel,  the  effect  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of  "carbon" 
which  would  otherwise  be  formed  by  such  a  heavy  oil  and  at 
the  same  time  to  keep  the  remaining  carbon  in  such  a  condition 
that  it  is  continually  removed  through  the  exhaust. 

Much  of  the  difficulty  experienced  in  lubricating  kerosene  en- 
gines has  been  due  to  lubricants  of  too  low  viscosity.  The  in- 
troduction of  water  into  the  cylinder  makes  a  different  condition 
from  that  present  where  no  water  is  introduced  as  in  the  regular 
gasoline  engine.  Much  of  the  kerosene  is  burned  in  a  finely 
atomized  condition  instead  of  being  actually  exploded. 

Kerosene  Tractors. — The  same  cylinder  oil  is  used  as  for  kero- 
sene engines  above.  For  the  lubrication  of  other  tractor  parts, 
medium  (No.  3)  cup  greases  are  suitable  for  the  various  cups 
and  for  the  axle  bearings.  The  transmission  is  lubricated  with 


LUBRICATION    OF   INTERNAL   COMBUSTION    ENGINES  39 

transmission  oil  or  a  suitable  cylinder  stock  of  175  viscosity  at 
210°  F.,  or  with  a  semi-fluid  gear  or  transmission  grease.  The 
same  dark  grease  may  be  used  on  the  rear  axle  bearing  if  desired. 
Regular  and  systematic  cleaning  of  the  cylinder  and  all  wear- 
ing parts  will  pay  well  in  lengthened  life  of  the  tractor. 

Aeroplane  Engines. — On  account  of  the  extreme  lightness  of 
the  motors,  the  high  speeds,  the  air-cooling  and  the  absolute 
necessity  for  the  motor  to  operate  continuously  at  full  capacity, 
the  use  of  only  the  highest  grade  oils  is  absolutely  necessary. 
These  are  usually  of  the  same  type  as  the  very  best  of  the  auto- 
mobile motor  oils.  The  gravity  should  be  high  (30°  Be.),  the 
flash  test  well  above  400°  F.,  the  cold  test  not  more  than  15°  F., 
and  the  carbonization  test  at  250°  C.  (482°  F.)  for  2^  hours 
should  show  only  a  minimum  amount  of  material  insoluble  in 
petroleum  ether  or  light  gasoline  (see  Heat  Test).  The  oils 
should  be  straight  mineral  oil  distillates,  or  heavy  distillates 
mixed  with  only  small  amounts  of  \vell-filtered  high-grade  cyl- 
inder stock,  and  should  show  little  carbon  residue  on  distillation 
to  dryness.  These  tests  are  to  insure  an  oil  which  will  give  the 
minimum  amount  of  carbonization  in  use,  as  carbon  would  not 
only  reduce  the  capacity  of  the  engine,  but  might  cause  the  en- 
gine to  stop  with  all  the  hazard  involved. 

The  viscosity  of  the  oil  should  be  high,  a  heavy-bodied  oil  of 
400  to  550  viscosity  at  100°  F.  being  required.  Vegetable  castor 
oil  is  used  extensively  for  lubricating  certain  cylinders,  as  in  the 
Gnome  rotary  motor.  It  can  be  used  alone  or  in  mixtures  with 
distillates  compounded  with  other  fatty  oils.  Aeroplane  engines 
can  also  be  lubricated  by  feeding  part  of  the  lubricant  mixed 
with  the  gasoline  and  part  through  the  regular  oiling  system. 

While  many  of  the  newer  aeroplanes  have  water-cooled  en- 
gines, and  consequently  require  somewhat  less  oil  than  the  air- 
cooled  engines,  the  conditions  in  both  types  of  engines  are  ex- 
cessively high  piston  speeds,  extra  high  pressures  and  tempera- 
tures, particularly  for  long  flights. 

Diesel  Engines. — The  Diesel  engine  does  not  operate  on  the 
explosive  principle  of  the  usual  gasoline  engine,  but  burns  an 


4O  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

atomized  liquid  fuel.  The  air  in  the  cylinder  is  compressed  to  a 
much  higher  degree  than  in  the  gasoline  engine,  so  that  it  be- 
comes heated  above  the  ignition  temperature  of  the  fuel  oil.  The 
finely  atomized  oil  is  consequently  ignited  as  it  is  introduced  into 
the  cylinder  toward  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke.  Any 
liquid  fuels,  even  heavy  distillates  can  be  readily  used.  The  en- 
gines are  usually  built  in  large  units  and  operate  with  a  low  fuel 
consumption  for  the  power  developed.  Fuel  oils  can  be  burned 
which  are  not  suitable  for  use  in  other  internal  combustion 
engines. 

The  lubrication  is  usually  by  a  forced-feed  or  a  circulating 
system.  For  the  cylinders,  use  a  medium  or  heavy  automobile 
oil  of  250  to  300  viscosity  at  100°  F.  This  oil  should  have  a 
flash  of  400°  F.  or  over  and  should  ordinarily  have  a  low  cold 
test,  and  a  low  carbonization  test  when  heated  for  2^  hours  at 
250°  C.  (482°  F.).  (See  Heat  Test.)  On  account  of  the  high 
compression  of  the  air  in  the  cylinder  (500  pounds  per  square 
inch)  and  the  resulting  high  temperature  before,  during  and  after 
the  combustion,  the  oil  is  subjected  to  such  a  high  temperature 
that  only  a  good  grade  of  oil  will  stand  up.  In  case  heavier  oils 
are  required  they  can  be  prepared  by  blending  a  well-filtered 
high-grade  cylinder  stock  with  a  larger  amount  of  a  high  vis- 
cosity distillate.  A  250  horse-power  Diesel  engine  uses  about  one 
quart  of  oil  per  hour. 

A  high-grade  oil  as  given  above  will  usually  meet  all  require- 
ments so  far  as  emulsifying  is  concerned.  In  certain  Diesel  en- 
gines where  moisture  is  present  in  the  cylinder  the  cylinder  oil 
can  be  used  compounded  with  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  a  suitable  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  oil.  It  is  preferable  to  use  straight  mineral  oils 
wherever  possible,  as  in  the  regular  Diesel  engines. 

The  oil  used  for  the  air  compressors  in  connection  with  Diesel 
engines  should  in  general  meet  the  conditions  stated  above  for 
Diesel  engine  cylinders.  The  oil  should  separate  readily  from 
water,  should  have  a  high  gravity  (above  30°  Be.),  and  should  be 
a  straight  distillate  of  200  viscosity  or  over.  The  oil  should  be 
filtered,  and  only  just  enough  oil  should  be  used.  Oils  sometimes 
form  acid  by  oxidation  under  the  influence  of  heat,  and  H. 


LUBRICATION   OF   INTERNAL    COMBUSTION    ENGINES  4! 

Moore  (Engineer,  120,  p.  176,  1915,  and  Ch.  A.,  p.  1093,  1916) 
has  shown  that  this  is  somewhat  dependent  on  the  iodine  number 
of  the  oil. 

In  connection  with  the  fuel  oil  consumption  for  a  Diesel  en- 
gine, it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Bureau  of  Mines  (Tech. 
Paper  37)  states  that  I  pound  of  fuel  oil  will  generate  the 
same  power  that  2^2  pounds  of  oil  or  4  pounds  of  coal  would 
generate  in  a  steam  turbine.  It  takes  from  0.525  to  0.721  pound 
of  fuel  oil  per  brake  horse-power  for  a  Diesel  engine. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


AUTOMOBILE  LUBRICATION. 

A.  MOTOR  LUBRICATION. 

Mechanical  Considerations. — In  any  discussion  of  automobile 
lubrication,  the  conditions  to  be  met  in  cylinder  lubrication  natu- 
rally receive  first  attention,  owing  to  its  importance  and  to  the 
special  difficulties  involved. 

The  various  designers  and  manufacturers  of  automobiles  have 
adopted  slightly  or  radically  different  systems  of  supplying  the 
lubricant  to  the  cylinder.  The  most  usual  systems  are  splash 
feed,  force  feed,  circulating  feed,  and  modifications  or  combina- 
tions of  these  separate  systems.  In  the  splash  systems  all  or  a 
large  part  of  the  lubricant  is  carried  in  the  crank  case  and  is 
splashed  on  or  fed  indirectly  to  the  cylinder  walls  below  the 
piston,  any  excess  oil  being  wiped  off  by  the  piston  and  running 
back  into  the  crank-case  reservoir  or  sump.  In  the  other  sys- 
tems the  oil  is  either  sprayed  directly  on  the  cylinder  walls  below 
the  piston,  or  it  is  fed  directly  to  the  friction  edge  of  the  piston 
where  it  is  needed. 

In  any  case,  the  lubrication  is  effected  by  means  of  the  oil  which 
actually  gets  between  the  piston  head  and  the  walls  of  the  cylinder. 
With  the  four-cycle  engine,  used  in  all  automobiles,  the  pressure 
is  higher  in  the  cylinder  than  it  is  outside  the  cylinder  during 
three  of  the  cycles.  This  tends  to  prevent  the  oil  entering  the 
cylinder  past  the  piston  head,  and  also  causes  a  tendency  to  press 
the  oil  from  between  the  piston  head  and  the  walls  of  the  cyl- 
inder. During  the  remaining  cycle  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  is 
lower  than  it  is  outside,  consequently  there  is  more  or  less  leak- 
age of  oil  into  the  cylinder  above  the  piston  head.  Most  of  the 
oil  entering  the  cylinder  is  thus  introduced  immediately  before 
the  compression  stroke.  This  is  the  oil  which  does  most  of  the 
work  and  causes  most  of  the  trouble  in  cylinder  lubrication. 

The  conditions  are  not  materially  different  whether  the  motor 
has  four  cylinders  or  twelve,  the  important  conditions  being  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  pistons  and  the  clearance  or  fit  of  the  pis- 
ton rings.  With  the  new  V-type  motors  used  on  eight-  and 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION  43 

twelve-cylinder  cars,  the  lubricating  system  has  to  be  more  elab- 
orately worked  out  to  secure  proper  distribution  of  the  oil,  but 
this  is  a  problem  for  the  automobile  designer  rather  than  for 
the  automobile  user.  Ordinarily  a  working  idea  of  the  size  of 
the  cylinder  can  be  had  from  the  horse-power  capacity  per 
cylinder. 

Temperature  Conditions. — While  exactly  the  same  amount  of 
heat  is  developed  in  burning  a  given  amount  of  the  same  gasoline 
completely,  irrespective  of  the  motor  used,  yet  the  temperature 
attained  may  be  very  different  with  different  motors.  Small 
cylinders  have  more  cooling  surfaces  in  proportion  to  their  capac- 
ity than  large  cylinders,  consequently  the  temperature  of  the 
cylinder  walls  is  usually  lower  for  small  cylinders.  Thus,  the 
temperature  of  the  cylinder  walls  of  a  twelve-cylinder  motor  will 
ordinarily  be  lower  than  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder  walls  of 
a  four-cylinder  motor  of  the  same  power. 

The  following  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  the  temperature 
conditions  in  a  water-cooled  motor : 


Degrees  F. 

It  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  temperatures  to  which  the  oil  on 
the  cylinder  walls  and  piston  head  is  exposed  will  not  only  greatly 
reduce  its  viscosity  but  will  rapidly  vaporize  and  burn  the  oil. 
Fortunately  the  larger  cylinders  are  always  installed  in  a  vertical 
position  so  that  the  weight  of  the  piston  does  not  come  directly 
on  the  cylinder  wall,  otherwise  much  heavier  oils  would  have  to 
be  used. 

What  Happens  to  the  Oil. — With  a  properly  working  motor 
having  close-fitting  pistons,  and  using  a  suitable  oil,  only  small 
amounts  of  oil  get  past  the  piston  rings.  Even  with  close-fitting 
piston  rings,  an  oil  of  too  low  viscosity  would  get  into  the  cyl- 
inder in  greater  quantity  than  necessary.  With  a  thin  film  of 
oil  on  the  cylinder  walls  and  on  the  piston  head,  part  of  the  oil 


44 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


is  vaporized  and  burned  during  each  explosion,  leaving  a  part  of 
the  oil  still  in  working  condition  on  the  cylinder  wall.     Part  of 


V. 

JC 

£ 

o 

o 

O 
O 

ro 

o 

-»-» 

o 

O 

O 

O 

CJ 

2 
O 


1_* 

C 

.c 

_c 

w  £ 

!2£ 

a<T 

•  "~ 

I  o 

<  O 
UJ  O 
I  O 

<  O 

M 

2    O 

2    0 

o  •<- 

o  r1" 

11 

^8| 

QL  K)v 

Q.  Os]1 

S     w 

a   « 

a  £ 


the  oil  may  be  burned  without  vaporizing.    The  small  amount  of 
carbon  formed  is  readily  blown  out  through  the  exhaust  unnoticed. 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION  45 

If  the  oil  happens  to  be  thin,  an  extra  amount  of  oil  gains  ad- 
mission to  the  cylinder.  This  oil  is  vaporized  and  burned,  or 
else  burned  without  vaporizing,  forming  more  carbon  than  the 
proper  amount  of  oil  would  have  done  and  at  the  same  time 
leaving  the  cylinder  and  piston  with  insufficient  lubrication.  Oils 
of  too  low  flash  test  would  also  vaporize  unnecessarily  fast  and 
so  reduce  the  quality  of  the  lubrication. 

If  the  oil  happens  to  have  sufficient  viscosity,  but  is  made  by 
blending  a  large  percentage  of  steam  cylinder  stock  with  some 
light  distillate,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  steam  cylinder  stock  will 
not  readily  vaporize,  but  will  accumulate  on  the  piston  head  and 
on  the  cylinder  walls.  It  will  then  be  burned,  or  vaporized  from 
the  piston  head,  leaving  considerable  deposits.  Steam  cylinder 
stocks  have  not  been  vaporized  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
and  cannot  be  vaporized  or  distilled  without  partly  breaking  down 
with  carbon  formation.  The  heavy  motor  oils  always  contain 
considerable  amounts  of  added  steam  cylinder  stock. 

In  addition  to  the  carbon  formed  by  "cracking,"  carbon  is  also 
formed  by  the  action  of  heat  on  the  oils,  the  amount  of  such  car- 
bonization being  determined  by  the  chemical  nature  of  the  par- 
ticular oil.  The  carbon  deposits  consist  only  partly  of  free  car- 
bon, the  major  part  of  the  deposit  being  made  up  of  grindings 
from  the  cylinder  walls,  road  dust,  and  asphaltic  or  resinous 
matter  formed  by  oxidation  and  polymerization  of  the  oil  under 
the  intense  heat. 

Dr.  C.  E.  Waters  (Tech.  Paper  No.  73  of  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards) states  that  the  carbonization  is  due  chiefly  to  this  formation 
of  asphaltic  substances  rather  than  to  actual  cracking.  He  rec- 
ommends the  heat  test  as  an  indication  of  the  ability  of  motor 
oils  to  stand  up  under  the  conditions  of  use.  Different  oils  heated 
for  two  or  three  hours  to  250°  C.  (482°  F.)  show  different 
amounts  of  material  insoluble  in  petroleum  ether.  He  does  not 
consider  longer  heating  necessary,  but  higher  temperatures  show 
even  greater  differences  between  "good"  oils  and  "bad"  oils.  The 
amount  of  "carbonization"  found  for  eight  well-known  brands  of 
motor  oil  after  heating  for  2.]/2  hours  at  250°  C.  varied  from  0.02 
per  cent,  to  0.70  per  cent.  Oils  which  had  been  exposed  for  sev- 


46  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

eral  days  to  sunlight  showed  increased  tendency  to  form  carbon 
under  heat.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  oils  which  were 
tested  for  vaporization  loss  showed  from  17  to  24  per  cent,  loss 
in  three  hours  at  250°  C.  (482°  F.),  but  this  has  no  direct  bear- 
ing on  the  amount  of  "carbon"  formation. 

The  presence  of  an  excess  of  oil  not  only  tends  to  the  forma- 
tion of  unusual  amounts  of  carbon,  but  some  of  the  excess  oil 
or  heavy  residues  from  it  may  act  to  prevent  blowing  out  much 
of  the  carbon  that  is  formed  and  so  aid  in  its  accumulation  in  the 
cylinder.  Too  rich  a  gasoline  mixture  also  tends  to  increase  the 
deposition  of  carbon  in  the  cylinder. 

The  Effect  of  Carbon  Deposits. — The  cylinders  are  designed  for 
a  certain  charge  and  an  optimum  compression.  While  the  de- 
signer has  allowed  for  the  accumulation  of  a  small  amount  of 
carbon,  yet  any  marked  accumulation  of  carbon  will  not  only  cut 
down  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  and  so  decrease  the  horse- 
power obtainable,  but  it  will  cause  the  compression  to  increase 
to  such  a  point  that  the  charge  will  be  over-heated  resulting  in 
spontaneous  ignition.  Pre-ignition  troubles  may  also  result  from 
highly  heated  carbon  actually  firing  the  charge.  Some  of  the 
other  effects  are  choking  up  of  valves,  spark  plugs  and  piston 
rings.  Carbon  may  result  in  "knocking,"  in  abrasion  of  the  cyl- 
inder and  piston,  in  wasted  fuel,  in  decreased  power,  or  even  in 
actual  stoppage  of  the  motor. 

The  Removal  of  Carbon  Deposits. — The  asphaltic  matter  usually 
makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  deposit.  Where  the  deposits  are 
soft  and  powdery  they  can  be  readily  removed  mechanically. 
Harder  deposits  could  be  •  chiselled  out.  Deposits  can  also  be 
burned  out  to  advantage  by  the  oxygen  or  oxy-acetylene  process. 
Deposits  can  sometimes  be  loosened  by  leaving  the  cylinders  full 
of  kerosene  over  night  and  then  operating  the  motor  so  as  to  blow 
out  the  softened  accumulations  through  the  exhaust.  Various 
other  light  solvents  besides  kerosene  have  been  used  for  this 
purpose. 

Motor  Oil  Tests. — The  most  important  single  test  is  for  the  vis- 
cosity at  100°  F.  or  at  some  higher  temperature.  The  real  lubri- 
cating value  of  the  oil  depends  primarily  upon  its  viscosity  at  the 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION  47 

temperature  of  use.  The  flash  test  in  the  open  cup  should  be 
taken.  Under  certain  conditions,  the  cold  test,  .the  fire  test,  the 
vaporization  test  and  the  color  test  should  be  made,  but  they  are 
not  usually  important.  The  gravity  is  an  indication  of  the  source  * 
of  the  oil ;  if  around  30°  Be.,  it  is  probably  a  Pennsylvania  prod- 
uct and  will  probably  retain  its  viscosity  somewhat  better  under 
heat  than  other  oils  do.  If  the  oil  is  not  of  Pennsylvania  or 
similar  origin  it  is  well  to  allow  a  little  extra  viscosity  as  shown  - 
at  100°  F.  If  the  addition  of  excessive  amounts  of  steam  cyl- 
inder stocks  is  suspected,  the  distillation  test  can  be  made;  a 
high  carbon  residue  will  indicate  such  additions.  These  stocks 
are  added  to  cheap,  light  oils  to  make  heavier  motor  oils,  and 
they  are  also  used  as  a  legitimate  addition  to  heavy  motor  oils  to 
make  extra  heavy  oils. 

The  carefully  filtered  oils  may  also  be  tested  by  heating  to  250° 
C.  (482°  F.)  for  2 }/2  hours  and  determining  the  asphalt  content 
by  dissolving  in  petroleum  ether  and  filtering  off  the  undissolved 
asphalt.  An  asphalt  content  of  0.50  per  cent,  would  indicate  an 
unsatisfactory  oil  so  far  as  carbon  formation  is  concerned. 

Cylinder  Oil  Specifications. — The  oils  should  be  straight  dis- 
tillates known  as  viscous  neutrals,  except  the  heavy  motor  oils 
which  can  be  blended  with  a  minimum  amount  of  well  filtered 
cylinder  stock.  The  flash  point  should  be  approximately  400°  F. 
or  higher.  An  oil  of  proper  flash  consistent  with  its  viscosity 
will  usually  be  free  from  low  boiling  constituents  and  will  give 
correspondingly  good  results  in  use.  The  gravity  test  may  be  of 
value  in  indicating  the  source  of  the  oil,  an  oil  of  high  Baume 
gravity  most  likely  being  of  Pennsylvania  or  similar  origin.  The 
fire  test,  the  cold  test  and  the  color  test  usually  give  no  added  in- 
formation so  far  as  actual  lubricating  value  is  concerned.  The 
oil  when  heated  for  15  minutes  to  its  flash  point  should  not  turn 
black  and  should  show  very  little  deposit  on  standing  24  hours. 
The  oils  should  have  been  purified  by  filtration  and  not  by  acid 
treatment. 

With  light  new  cars,  oil  of  140  viscosity  can  often  be  used, 
but  there  is  no  advantage  in  using  an  oil  below  160  viscosity  at 
100°  F.  A  so-called  "light"  motor  oil  should  have  a  viscosity  of 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


about  180  to  200.  Such  an  oil  will  usually  lubricate  all  light  cars 
in  average  condition,  and  all  medium  weight  cars  in  good  condi- 
tion. It  is  preferable,  however,  to  use  the  regular  "medium"  oil 
of  240  to  260  viscosity  for  the  average  medium  weight  car  as 
the  oil  consumption  will  be  considerably  less  than  with  the  light 
oil  and  the  resulting  carbon  formation  will  also  be  less.  Cars  in 
poor  condition,  as  with  loose  piston  rings,  will  require  heavier 
oil  for  proper  lubrication.  For  heavy  trucks  or  heavy  motors, 
an  oil  of  350  viscosity  or  over  can  be  used.  The  heaviest  oils 
offered  for  the  very  heaviest  work  rarely  exceed  700  viscosity 
at  100°  F.  Heavier  oils  are  desirable  for  air-cooled  cars  than 
for  water-cooled  cars.  Knight  motors  require  extra  heavy  oils. 

Analyses  of  Some  Motor  Oils. — The  following  analyses  show  the 
properties  of  some  oils  actually  in  use  for  motor  lubrication : 


Gravity 

Flash(°F) 
Open  cup 

Viscosity 

Remarks 

Light  motor  oils: 

Sample  No.  I  •  •  • 

26.6 

405 

162 

No.  2... 

27.0 

390 

183 

No.  3... 

30.0 

415 

195 

No.  3a.. 

22.0 

380 

215 

Medium  motor  oils: 

Sample  No.  4-  .  . 

25.5 

415 

I96 

No.  5... 

26.3 

385 

206 

A  blended  oil  shows  14.8$ 

residue   (liquid)   on  dis- 

tillation. 

No.  6.-. 

25-6 

400 

207 

No.  7... 

25.8 

400 

228 

A  blended  oil  shows  2.8$> 

residue   (liquid)   on  dis- 

tillation. 

No.  8... 

26.8 

430 

285 

Heavy  motor  oils: 

Sample  No.    9.. 

24-5 

420 

262 

"        No.  io.. 

29.0 

42O 

3IO 

No.'n.. 

27.2 

43° 

435 

Analyses  of  a  large  number  of  motor  oils  made  in  1917  show 
gravities  ranging  from  19.5°  to  28.5°  Be.,  and  viscosities  as  fol- 
lows :  Light  motor  oils  190  to  220  Saybolt  at  100°  F.,  and  medium 
motor  oils  250  Saybolt  and  higher.  The  heavy  and  the  extra 
heavy  motor  oils  have  considerably  higher  viscosities,  but  do  not 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION 


49 


MOTOR  OIL,  CHART. 

The  Viscosity  figures  indicate  suitable  oils  for  engines  in  average  work- 
ing condition.  The  minimum  figures  are  for  new  cars,  or  for  engines  with 
close  fitting  piston  rings,  where  the  lubricating  conditions  are  otherwise 
favorable.  For  summer  use,  and  for  engines  in  poor  condition,  the  oils  of 
higher  viscosity  are  adapted.  The  figures  represent  the  maximum  ranges 
usually  required  for  modern  cars  (1916  and  1917  models). 


Automobile  or  truck 

Viscosity  of 
cylinder  oil 
at  100  °F. 

Automobile  or  truck 

Viscosity  of 
cylinder  oil 
at  ioo°F. 

Abbott-Detroit  -  • 

225-300 
250-300 
225-300 
250-350 
300-375 
250-350 
225-300 
220-275 
225-300  /* 
220-275 
225-300 
250-350 
220-275 
225-300 
220-275 
225-300 
225-300 
250-300 
225-300 
220-2/5 
225-300 
450-800 
225-300 
250-350 
225-300 
3^0-500 
$85^50) 

275-350 
250-300 
220-2/5 
250-300 
250-350 
225-300 
250-350 
250-375 
250-375 
225-300 
250-350 
225-300 
250-350 
300-500 
220-275 

Liberty  6 

250-275 
225-300 
250-350 
250-350 
250-350 

300-375 
300-375 
225-300 
225-300 
350-700 
225  300 
250-300 
275-300 
250-300 
220-275 

250-350 
250-300 

275-375 
250-350 
250-300 
250-325 
275-375 
200-250 

275-375 
220-275 

275-325 
250-350 
200-250 
250-325 
250-350 
350-700 

275-375 
250-350 

300-375 
220-275 
250-350 
250-350 
225-325 
350-700 
250-325 

Apperson,  6  &  8-cvl.  
.\tlas  •  .  . 

Locomobile,  6-cyl.  

^  very  

Ylack  

Benz  

Blair 

Briscoe,  4  &  8  cyl.  
Buick  •  • 

Maxwell  

Cadillac   8-cyl 

Met? 

Case    

Mitchell 

Moline  (Knight) 

Chandler  6  

Chase  (water-cooled)  ... 
Chevrolet  

Oakland   8-cyl   • 

Crow-Klkhart  

Dart 

Dort  

El^in  6  

Peerless,  4,  6  &  8-cyl.  ... 
Pierce-  Arrow,  6-cyl.  
Pierce-  Arrow,  Comm.  .  .  . 

Federal  

Fiat  

Ford 

Franklin   6-cvl  •    

Regal  8-cyl  

Reo  

Haynes,  12-cyl.  
Henderson  

Saxon   4-cyl    

Saxon   6-cyl    

Hollier  8  

Selden  • 

Stearns-Kuight,  4&8-cyl. 

^tiirlpln  Vpr 

I.  H.  C.  (water-cooled).. 
Indiana  

Stutz  

Velie    fi-rvl 

Jackson  4  &  8-cvl    

Westcott  

JefTerv  4  &  8  cvl  

White 

Kin0"  8  •  « 

\VirJiita 

\Vil1vQ  "K"nicrht 

Wintnn 

50  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

offer  any  regular  basis  for  comparison  so  far  as  the  viscosity  at 
100°  F.  is  concerned.  Where  the  working  conditions  are  severe 
and  a  heavy  oil  is  required,  the  tendency  is  to  supply  oils  of 
higher  viscosity  than  was  formerly  considered  necessary  under 
similar  circumstances.  In  winter,  it  is  necessary  to  use  oils  of 
low  cold  test  to  avoid  difficulty  in  starting  the  engine,  conse- 
quently oils  of  lower  viscosity  are  needed  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  as  the  heavier  oils  usually  have  relatively  high  cold  tests 
particularly  if  from  paraffin-base  oils. 

The  tabulated  analyses  are  not  all  for  high  grade  oils.  Owing 
to  competitive  conditions  in  the  oil  trade,  and  to  the  higher  cost 
of  the  heavier  oils,  the  tendency  is  to  substitute  low  viscosity 
oils  under  the  name  "heavy"  motor  oils,  and  similarly  for  "me- 
dium" motor  oils.  While  this  may  apparently  be  to  the  interest 
of  the  oil  manufacturer,  it  is  certainly  not  to  the  interest  of  the 
consumer.  His  interest  demands  an  oil  of  somewhat  too  high 
viscosity  in  preference  to  an  oil  of  too  low  viscosity. 

Oil  Consumption. — Most  motorists  waste  their  cylinder  oil. 
With  an  oil  of  proper  viscosity  and  with  proper  piston  clearance 
as  in  new  cars,  the  oil  consumption  can  be  cut  to  25  per  cent,  of 
the  average  per  mile  consumption.  Cars  which  normally  require 
a  gallon  of  oil  for  each  150  to  200  miles  can  be  run  with  proper 
motor  conditions  for  600  to  800  miles  on  the  same  amount  of  a 
suitable  oil.  With  proper  oil-feed,  carbon  troubles  would  be  a 
thing  of  the  past.  The  blue  smoke  from  the  exhaust  is  not  al- 
ways due  to  a  low  grade  gasoline;  it  is  often  due  to  an  excess 
of  cylinder  oil. 

With  loose  "leaky"  piston  rings  a  heavier  oil  is  needed  and 
more  of  it.  More  gasoline  is  also  required  and  the  results  are 
in  general  less  satisfactory.  The  proper  clearance  of  pistons  is 
not  over  0.002  inch  per  inch  of  cylinder  diameter.  The  crank- 
case  reservoir  should  be  cleaned  out  at  frequent  intervals.  .  This 
becomes  more  necessary  if  there  is  leakage  of  contaminated'  and 
sooty  oil  past  the  piston  head.  A  proper  oil  seal  on  the  piston 
rings  is  as  important  as  actual  lubrication  in  saving  power  an4 
in  protecting  the  oil  in  the  reservoir  from  contamination  by  hot 
gases  and  wastes  from  the  cylinder. 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION  51 

The  secret  of  successful  motor  lubrication  is  to  keep  the  motor 
in  good  mechanical  condition  and  use  an  oil  of  good  (high)  vis- 
cosity somewhat  sparingly.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  an  oil 
of  quite  as  high  viscosity  for  winter  use  as  for  summer  use. 

The  two  most  important  and  necessary  characteristics  of  motor 
oils  are  proper  viscosity  at  the  working  temperatures  and  low 
carbon  formation.  The  excessive  high  engine  speeds,  2,600  to 
3,400  revolutions  per  minute  in  some  modern  automobile  engines, 
and  the  attendant  high  rubbing  speeds  in  the  cylinders  make  an 
oil  of  just  the  right  viscosity  absolutely  necessary,  otherwise  the 
oil  film  will  not  have  time  to  form  and  the  power  out-put  of  the 
engine  will  also  be  reduced. 

B.  GENERAL  CHASSIS  LUBRICATION. 

Transmission  Lubrication. — Where  the  transmission  is  suitably, 
housed  to  retain  oil,  a  good  steam  refined  cylinder  stock  of  160 
to  220  viscosity  at  210°  F.  is  a  satisfactory  lubricant.  The  lu- 
bricant should  have  enough  body  to  adhere  to  and  cushion  the 
gears  without  wiping  off  from  the  teeth  under  the  great  pressure. 
Such  an  oil  should  be  from  25°  to  26°  Be.,  30°  F.  cold  test, 
550°  to  600°  F.  flash  in  the  open  cup  and  600°  to  675°  F.  fire 
test. 

Where  an  oil  does  not  have  enough  body,  as  in  heavy  cars  and 
trucks,  a  transmission  grease  can  be  used.  The  true  transmission 
greases  are  usually  dark  in  appearance,  being  made  from  cylinder 
stocks,  and  are  semi-fluid.  The  body  of  such  a  grease  can  be 
made  sufficiently  high  for  any  properly  designed  transmission 
while  the  ability  of  the  grease  to  stick  to  the  gears  is  retained. 
If  the  grease  is  not  semi-fluid,  but  stiff  and  heavy,  the  gears  will 
cut  "tracks"  through  it  without  being  properly  lubricated.  If 
the  grease  is  too  thin,  as  would  be  the  case  if  a  thin  oil  were 
used  in  making  the  grease,  the  gears  will  not  be  cushioned 
properly. 

Light  cars  are  often  lubricated  with  cup  greases  or  similar 
light  greases,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  steam  refined  cylinder 
stock.  The  light  greases  alone  are  hardly  to  be  recommended  as 
the  greases  have  to  be  fairly  stiff  in  order  to  do  the  work  properly, 
5 


52  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

particularly  if  made  from  the  usual  grades  of  thin  oils,  but  a 
stiff  grease  may  fail  to  lubricate  also  by  having  the  gears  cut 
tracks  through  it. 

Differential  Lubrication. — A  dark  semi-fluid  transmission  grease 
of  good  body  is  suitable.  The  grease  can  be  somewhat  stiffer 
than  described  for  the  transmission.  It  should  be  made  from 
cylinder  oil  stock.  Cup  greases  should  not  be  used,  except  pos- 
sibly for  light  cars. 

Some  manufacturers  use  graphite  or  mica  to  assist  in  cushion- 
ing the  gears.  Excessive  amounts  of  these  substances  act  as 
cheapeners,  although  reasonable  additions  are  legitimate. 

Poorly  designed  or  poorly  cut  bearings  on  heavy  cars  or  trucks 
may  require  lubrication  with  a  special  heavy  grease  containing 
solid  fiber,  either  asbestos  or  wood.  Such  a  grease  may  reduce 
•rattling,  but  it  also  increases  power  losses. 

Worm  Drives. — A  special  heavy  gear  grease  is  used  on  worm 
drives.  The  oil  in  the  grease  should  be  a  suitable  cylinder  stock. 
For  some  drives  an  extra  heavy  cylinder  stock  of  220  to  250 
viscosity  at  210°  F.  is  preferred  instead  of  the  grease.  The  use 
of  tar  or  asphalt-thickened  oils  or  greases  is  inadvisable  for  any 
of  the  gears  of  automobiles  or  trucks. 

Roller  Bearings. — For  automobiles  a  medium  to  soft  grade  of 
fiber  or  cup  grease  can  be  used.  For  heavy  trucks,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  a  tough,  stringy  grease  made  from  a  good  cylinder 
stock.  Fiber  or  sponge  greases  are  preferable  to  cup  greases  as 
there  is  less  tendency  for  the  oil  to  separate  from  the  grease. 
Gear  compounds,  which  should  only  be  made  from  sponge  or 
fiber  greases  combined  with  heavy  oil,  are  least  likely  to  leak  out. 

The  bearings  of  the  rear  axle  are  partly  lubricated  by  the 
waste  lubricant  from  the  differential. 

Greases  loaded  with  much  graphite  or  mica  should  not  be  used 
on  the  roller  bearings  in  the  wheels. 

The  Use  of  Cup  Greases. — The  chief  use  for  cup  greases  in  auto- 
mobile lubrication  is  in  connection  with  the  various  compression 
cups.  For  this  work  various  consistencies  are  available,  the  most 
usual  grade  being  a  medium  grease  of  No.  3  body. 


AUTOMOBILE   LUBRICATION  53 

Electric  Road  Vehicles. — For  the  transmission  and  gears  a  high- 
grade  steam  refined  cylinder  stock  of  170  to  240  viscosity  at  210° 
F.  is  suitable.  The  oil  should  have  a  fairly  low  cold  test  for 
winter  use.  Such  a  high  viscosity  oil  will  have  sufficient  adhering 
power  to  cling  to  the  gears  under  pressure.  In  the  rare  cases 
where  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  oil  to  work  out,  a  thin,  semi- 
fluid gear  grease  made  from  a  high-viscosity  cylinder  stock  can 
be  used  successfully.  For  general  lubrication  of  the  electric 
motors,  etc.,  an  oil  of  300  to  350  viscosity  at  100°  F.  can  be  used. 

ADDITIONAL  REFERENCE. 
Bryan  on  "Motor  Oils,"  /.  Am.  Soc.  Mech.'Eng.,  37,  p.  293. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  LUBRICATION  OF  ELECTRICAL  MACHINERY. 

Dynamos  and  Motors. — Most  of  these  machines  are  equipped 
with  ring-feed  bearings,  or  with  circulating  feed.  The  usual 
conditions  are  high  speeds  and  a  fairly  high  operating  tempera- 
ture due  to  the  heat  generated  by  the  electric  current  in  true 
adjacent  coils.  The  function  of  the  oil  is  to  give  sufficient  lubri- 
cation and  to  aid  in  cooling  the  bearings.  Since  the  oil  is  used 
over  and  over  again,  a  thin  oil  is  decidedly  preferable.  Such  an 
oil  circulates  more  readily  and  permits  the  impurities  to  settle 
out  more  quickly. 

Where  the  oil-cooling  reservoir  is  not  sufficiently  large  an  oil 
of  higher  viscosity  becomes  necessary.  Such  an  oil  is  more  likely 
to  form  gummy  material  and  give  trouble  than  would  a  thinner 
oil  kept  at  the  proper  temperature  by  an  efficient  cooling  system. 
In  starting  a  dynamo  or  motor,  particularly  the  larger  machines 
after  long  standing,  the  bearings  can  often  be  hand-oiled  to  ad- 
vantage. The  oiling-rings  should  be  regularly  inspected  to  see 
that  they  are  revolving  and  so  feeding  the  oil  properly. 

For  lubricating  the  bearings  of  very  small  machines  heavy 
spindle  oils  or  non-viscous  neutral  oils  can  be  used.  These  oils 
should  have  a  viscosity  of  70  to  no  at  100°  F. 

For  small  dynamos  and  motors,  of  5  to  35  horse-power,  viscous 
neutral  oils  are  required.  Engine  oils  of  good  grade  and  light 
automobile  oils  are  suitable.  The  oils  should  preferably  be 
straight  distillates  purified  by  filtration  rather  than  by  chemical 
treatment,  and  of  low  enough  cold  test  to  meet  the  conditions 
of  use.  The  gravity  of  the  best  oils  will  ordinarily  be  above  30° 
Be.,  but  good  oils  can  be  had  of  27°  Be.  The  flash  point  will  be 
above  380°  F.,  the  cold  test  below  20°  F.,  and  the  viscosity  140 
to  180  at  100°  F.  The  oils  should  be  free  from  gummy  or 
tarry  matter  as  shown  by  the  gasoline  test. 

For  large  dynamos  and  motors,  over  50  horse-power,  viscous 
neutral  oils  of  160  to  220  viscosity  at  100°  F.,  are  suitable.  These 
oils  should  preferably  be  straight  distillates,  have  a  flash  test  of 


THE   LUBRICATION    OF   ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY  55 

400°  F.,  and  be  pure  mineral  oils  as  shown  by  the  tests  just 
given  for  purity. 

Transformer  Oil. — The  function  of  a  transformer  oil  is  to  act 
as  a  non-conductor,  chiefly  between  the  primary  and  the  second- 
ary coils,  and  to  carry  off  the  large  amount  of  heat  generated 
by  reason  of  the  electrical  resistance  in  the  coils.  To  be  able  to 
maintain  the  proper  dielectric  conditions,  the  oil  must  be  abso- 
lutely free  from  acid,  alkali  and  mineral  salts,  and  free  from  any 
trace  of  moisture  or  mechanically  suspended  impurities. 

Even  one  part  of  water  in  100,000  parts  of  oil  greatly  reduces 
the  dielectric  strength  of  the  oil.  For  use  in  high  tension  trans- 
formers the  oil  is  subjected  to  a  test  at  30,000  volts:  The  sus- 
pended water  is  usually  removed  by  filter-pressing;  for  example, 
through  several  hundred  thicknesses  of  "blotting"  paper.  Water 
can  also  be  removed  by  filtering  through  freshly  burned  lime.  A 
simple  method  for  testing  for  the  presence  of  water  in  the  oil 
is  by  shaking  the  oil  with  a  little  anhydrous  copper  sulphate.  The 
white  powder  turns  blue  if  there  is  a  trace  of  moisture  present. 
The  anhydrous  copper  sulphate  can  be  prepared  for  use  by  gently 
heating  a  little  of  the  ordinary  blue  copper  sulphate  so  as  to  drive 
off  the  water.  The  presence  of  water  in  any  appreciable  amounts 
can  also  be  detected  by  heating  a  quantity  of  the  oil  in  a  test 
tube  immersed  in  a  boiling  salt-water  bath.  If  water  is  present 
in  the  oil  a  series  of  small  bead-like  bubbles  will  form  on  the 
surface  of  the  oil  where  it  is  in  contact  with  the  tube. 

In  order  to  circulate  freely  the  oil  should  be  of  low  viscosity, 
preferably  a  non-viscous  neutral  of  80  to  120  or  140  viscosity 
at  100°  F.  The  oil  circulates  by  gravity  or  by  means  of  a  pump. 
The  cold  test  should  be  below  20°  F. 

Since  the  oil  is  subjected  to  high  temperatures  almost  con- 
tinuously, up  to  100°  C.,  the  flash  should  be  over  340°  F.  The 
oil  should  not  lose  over  0.2  per  cent,  when  heated  at  100°  C. 
(212°  F.)  for  5  hours,  and  should  not  contain  asphaltic  or 
tarry  matter  originally  or  after  heating  for  several  hours  in  the 
presence  of  air  at  250°  F.  The  gravity  should  be  above  32°  Be. 

Holde  ("Examination  of  Hydrocarbon  Oils,"  p.  81)  states  that 


56  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

special  rosin  oils  and  heavier  distillates,  of  approximately  300 
viscosity,  are  also  used.  Rosin  oils  show  much  greater  volatility 
than  do  the  mineral  oils,  while  the  heavier  mineral  oil  distillates 
show  very  little  evaporation  loss.  The  heavier  oils  show  greater 
tendency  to  form  the  undesirable  asphalt. 

The  "Report  of  the  Sub-committee  of  the  Institute  of  Elec- 
trical Engineers"  on  the  suitability  of  an  oil  for  a  cooling-insulat- 
ing medium  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  tests  required.  (/. 
hist.  Elect.  Hng.,  54,  p.  497,  1916;  and  /.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  35, 
p.  625;  also  Chem.  A.,  p.  2633,  1916.)  For  methods  of  making 
the  evaporation  test  for  transformer  oils  see  Waters,  /.  Ind.  & 
Eng.  Chem.,  pp.  394~398>  I9I3- 

Electric  Elevators. — For  suitable  oils  for  lubricating  the 
motors,  see  specifications  under  electric  motors  of  the  proper 
capacity.  The  worm-gears  can  be  lubricated  with  a  steam  re- 
fined cylinder  stock  of  170  to  220  viscosity  at  210°  F.  Heavy, 
dark  gear  greases  when  not  too  stiff,  or  similar  semi-fluid  greases 
made  by  blending  fibre  or  sponge  grease  with  cylinder  stocks  can 
be  used.  For  the  compression  cups  a  medium  grease  will  answer 
if  the  grease  contains  an  oil  of  sufficient  viscosity.  Small  addi- 
tions of  graphite  or  of  high-grade  mica  may  be  beneficial  in  the 
worm-gears. 

For  lubricating  the  metal  cables  and  for  preventing  rusting,  a 
very  heavy  engine  oil  distillate  of  300  viscosity  at  100°  F.  can  be 
used,  or  a  good  cylinder  stock,  or  cylinder  stock  blended  with  a 
distillate.  The  guides  can  be  lubricated  with  similar  heavy  oils. 

Rotary  Converters. — The  same  type  oil,  or  slightly  heavier 
oils  are  used  as  for  heavy  dynamos  and  motors. 

Vertical  Electrical  Generators. — These  are  mounted  on  a  water- 
driven  shaft  which  ordinary  floats  on  an  oil  film  maintained  by  a 
circulating  force-pump.  The  oil  should  have  the  same  general 
characteristics  as  specified  for  large  dynamos  and  motors  and 
should  have  a  viscosity  of  at  least  200  at  100°  F. 

Electric  Railways. — The  various  bearings  and  journals  are 
likely  to  become  badly  contaminated  with  dirt  and  grit  sucked  up 
from  the  road-bed.  Regular,  systematic  inspection  and  regular 


THE   LUBRICATION    OF   EXECTRICAI,    MACHINERY  57 

cleaning  are  necessary  to  prevent  destruction  of  the  bearings  and 
to  keep  the  packing  in  place  so  as  to  feed  the  lubricant  to  each 
bearing.  The  waste  should  be  well  moistened,  but  not  soaked, 
in  order  to  lubricate  without  wasting  the  oil. 

The  motor  axle  bearings  and  the  bearings  of  the  armature  are 
subjected  to  considerable  heating  from  the  electric  current  and 
so  should  preferably  be  lubricated  with  a  heavy  engine  oil  of  280 
to  400  viscosity.  The  flash  test  should  be  approximately  400°  F. 
and  the  cold  test  10°  or  25°  F.  depending  on  the  season  and  the 
climate. 

Air  compressors  (see  Index)  are  lubricated  with  a  good  light 
cylinder  stock  or  cylinder  oil. 

For  lubricating  the  journals  a  cheap  car  oil  is  satisfactory. 
Suitable  black  oils  or  car  oils  should  have  the  following  character- 
istics :  For  summer,  80  to  90  viscosity  at  210°  F.,  300°  to  325°  F. 
flash  test  and  free  from  excessive  amounts  of  tarry  sediment ;  for 
winter,  about  65  viscosity  at  210°  F.,  275°  to  300°  F.  flash  test, 
10°  F.  cold  test,  and  free  from  excessive  sediment  (not  over  5 
per  cent,  by  the  gasoline  test). 

It  has  been  customary  for  some  of  the  oil  companies  to  rate 
black  car  oils  on  the  basis  of  their  viscosity  at  130°  F. 

Street  railways  are  often  furnished  lubricants  on  a  per  mile 
basis,  but  this  is  not  always  to  the  interest  of  the  railway  com- 
panies. 

For  the  motor  gearing  of  electric  railway  cars,  heavy  greases 
of  high  melting  point  are  used.  These  greases  should  be  made 
from  heavy  oils  so  as  to  cling  to  the  gears  properly.  Sometimes 
greases  containing  a  heavy  residuum  combined  with  tar  are  used 
on  account  of  their  ability  to  cling  to  the  gears  under  the  con- 
ditions of  use,  but  the  solid  grades  of  this  grease,  similar  to  "hot 
neck"  greases  for  rolling  mills,  are  too  thick  for  advantageous  use 
on  car  gears.  One  reason  for  using  such  greases  in  preference  to 
regular  gear  greases,  is  on  account  of  the  higher  cost  of  the 
regular  gear  greases. 

Curve  greases,  for  application  to  the  tracks,  are  made  from 
crude,  heavy  residuum,  from  various  grades  of  tar  or  pitch,  or 
from  combinations  of  tar  and  residuum. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  LUBRICATION  OF  STEAM  CYLINDERS  AND 
STEAM  ENGINES. 

Saturated  Steam  Conditions. — When  steam  is  generated  in  a 
closed  space,  as  in  a  steam  boiler,  the  pressure  rises  to  a  definite 
point  corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the  steam.  This  is  the 
usual  type  of  boiler,  the  steam  pressure  being  automatically  re- 
leased by  a  safety  valve  whenever  it  reaches  a  predetermined 
maximum.  The  temperature  of  saturated  steam  is  exactly  pro- 
portional to  the  pressure,  so  if  the  correct,  effective  gauge  pres- 
sure is  known  the  temperature  can  be  read  off  by  means  of  a  table 
such  as  the  following: 


Effective  gauge  pres- 
sure (Ibs.  per  sq.  in.) 

Temperature 

°F. 

Effective  gauge  pres- 
sure (Ibs.  per  sq.  in.) 

Temperature 

°F. 

IO 

238 

1  2O 

350 

20 

260 

130 

356 

3° 

276 

140 

360 

40 

288 

150 

365 

50 

297 

1  60 

370 

60 

307 

170 

375 

70 

316 

1  80 

379 

80 

323 

190 

383 

90 

332 

200 

387 

100 

337 

225 

397 

110 

344 

250 

406 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  even  with  the  highest  pressures  used,  no 
importance  need  be  attached  to  the  flash  point  of  cylinder  oil  for 
use  with  saturated  steam  as  practically  all  cylinder  oils  now  of- 
fered for  sale  flash  above  500°  F. 

The  viscosity 'of  the  oil  is  important  as  well  as  the  amount  of 
fixed  oil  and  the  method  of  feeding  the  oil  to  the  cylinders.  Pres- 
sures below  60  pounds  are  usually  called  low  pressures,  while 
high  pressures  refer  to  pressure  of  125  pounds  per  square  inch 
and  over. 

Superheated  Steam  Conditions. — Superheated  steam  is  steam 
which  has  a  higher  temperature  than  corresponds  to  its  pressure, 
owing  to  having  been  subjected  to  direct  heating  after  being  gen- 


LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES  59 

erated  in  the  boiler.  The  number  of  degrees  the  steam  is  above 
that  of  saturated  steam  at, the  same  pressure  is  called  the  "de- 
grees of  superheat."  The  extra  heating  is  usually  accomplished 
by  having  a  large  number  of  small  &ipes  making  a  number  of 
turns  in  the  firebox,  the  steam  having  to  move  through  these  pipes 
on  the  way  from  the  boiler  to  the  steam  chest.  The  turns  in  the 
pipes  are  necessary  in  order  to  "break  the  core"  of  the  steam 
which  is  moving  at  an  extraordinary  velocity  and  so  insure  its 
coming  into  contact  with  the  hot  pipe. 

The  economy  in  the  use  of  superheated  steam  comes  from  the 
facts  that  a  very  large  amount  of  heat  is  required  to  change 
water  into  steam,  and  less  heat  is  required  to  raise  steam  one  de- 
gree than  to  raise  water  one  degree.  Steam,  like  any  other  gas 
or  vapor,  expands  rapidly  when  heated.  This  expansion  of  the 
steam  in  the  pipes  in  the  firebox  does  not  result  in  increased 
pressure  over  that  in  the  boiler,  but  has  the  effect  of  increasing 
the  volume  of  the  steam  and  so  raising  the  capacity  of  the  boiler 
equipment. 

Superheated  steam  has  many  advantages  over  high  pressure 
saturated  steam,  especially  for  locomotives.  The  temperature  of 
superheated  steam  may  rise  to  600°  or  700°  F.  While  the  steam 
may  reach  such  temperatures  for  certain  engines,  at  the  moment 
of  introduction  into  the  cylinders,  the  most  usual  practice  is  to 
give  just  a  sufficient  degree  of  superheat  to  insure  the  steam 
reaching  the  steam  chest  without  condensation.  Normally,  the 
steam  is  introduced  into  the  cylinders  with  more  or  less  superheat. 
The  actual  cylinder  pressure  is  more  nearly  the  boiler  pressure 
than  with  saturated  steam  as  the  loss  of  pressure  from  condensa- 
tion is  largely  overcome.  With  saturated  steam,  condensation  not 
only  acts  to  lower  the  pressure  but  also  to  waste  steam  which  has 
already  been  generated  before  it  has  had  a  chance  to  do  useful 
work. 

In  any  case,  whatever  the  degree  of  superheat,  the  steam  may 
be  so  reduced  in  temperature  during  ifs  expansion  in  the  cylinder, 
by  reason  of  work  done  and  loss  of  heat  through  conduction  and 
radiation  from  the  cylinder,  that  condensation  takes  place  and  a 
wet  steam  results.  Most  of  this  water  is  ordinarily  vaporized 


60  AMERICAN  LUBRICANTS 

during  the  exhaust  or  it  is  vaporized  by  the  subsequent  inrush  of 
more  superheated  steam.  With  a  high  degree  of  superheat,  com- 
pound cylinders  are  used,  the  high-pressure  cylinder  working  dry 
and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  fed  by  the  exhaust  steam,  working 
wet  as  a  regular  saturated  steam  cylinder. 

The  conditions  in  a  superheated  steam  cylinder  as  compared 
to  a  saturated  steam  cylinder,  are  higher  working  temperature, 
higher  working  pressure,  and  dryer  steam  for  the  former.  In 
order  to  meet  these  conditions,  a  higher  viscosity  oil  is  required 
with  a  better  flash  and  fire  test.  Except  in  rare  cases  compounded 
oils  are  necessary.  Superheated  cylinders  and  valves,  except  on 
locomotives,  require  very  little  fatty  oil  in  the  cylinder  oil. 

Methods  of  Applying  Cylinder  Oils. — The  kind  of  cylinder  oil 
to  use  is  largely  dependent  on  the  method  of  lubrication.  Where 
the  oil  is  warmed  before  pouring  into  the  lubricator  and  where 
the  oil  in  the  lubricator  is  kept  warm  by  the  aid  of  steam  or  con- 
densed water,  a  low  cold  test  is  of  slight  importance  except  for 
convenience  in  handling. 

In  the  hydrostatic  or  sight-feed  lubricator,  such  as  the  widely- 
used  Detroit  or  similar  lubricator,  the  oil  floats  on  warm  water 
supplied  by  condensation  from  a  vertical  steam  pipe,  the  con- 
densed water  in  the  vertical  pipe  serving  to  force  the  oil  through  a 
small  tube  into  a  sight-feed  glass.  Here  the  oil  feeds  up  through 
water,  drop  by  drop,  then  goes  by  a  short  pipe  well  into  a  special 
steam  pipe  leading  to  the  cylinder  or  steam-chest.  The  passing 
steam  catches  the  oil  drop  and  shoots  it  to  the  steam  chest  in  a 
finely  atomized  condition.  The  cylinders  and  valves  may  be  lubri- 
cated by  separate  pipes  or  by  the  same  pipe.  If  the  oil  has  too 
high  viscosity  for  the  steam  pressure  available  it  will  not  be 
properly  atomized  for  good  lubrication.  Low  flash  oil  and  oil 
high  in  fatty  oils  seem  to  be  more  completely  atomized  than  high 
flash  oils  or  straight  mineral  oils. 

The  sight-feed  glass  should  be  kept  clean  so  as  to  feed  perfect 
drops,  and  the  cup  of  the  lubricator  should  be  frequently  drained 
and  cleaned.  In  starting  the  lubricator,  the  oil  feed  should  not 
be  opened  until  the  oil  in  the  cup  has  reached  a  proper  working 
temperature,  which  is  usually  about  140°  to  150°  F.  Also  the 


LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES 


6l 


feed  water  in  the  vertical  pipe  should  be  sufficiently  high  to  feed 
the  oil.  The  rate  of  feed  is  judged  by  the  number  of  drops  of 
oil  per  minute.  Cylinder  oils  vary  from  about  3,000  to  6,000  drops 
per  quart  of  oil,  depending  on  viscosity,  amount  of  tar,  etc.,  as 
well  as  on  lubricator  conditions. 


Detroit  Improved  Standard  lubricator. 
(By  courtesy  of  Detroit  lubricator  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.) 

The  principle  employed  in  the  hydrostatic  lubricator  is  simple  and  positive.     Steam  being 

admitted  into  pipe  "B"  and  condenser  "F"  condenses,  thus  forming  a  column  of 

water  which  exerts  a  pressure  equal  to  its  head  plus  the  difference  in  specific 

gravity  between  oil  and  water,  through   the   tube   "P"  on  the  oil  in 

reservoir  "A."     By  this  excess  pressure   the  oil   is  forced  from 

reservoir  "A"  through  the  tube  "S"  and  sight-feed  nozzle 

"N"  into  the  sight-feed  chamber  "H."     The  sight-feed 

chamber  being  filled  with  water,  the  drop  of  oil 

floats  to  the  top  and  passes  to  the  point  to 

§be    lubricated    through  the  passage 
"T"  and  support  arm  "K." 

Force-feed  lubricators,  worked  mechanically  by  the  moving 
parts  of  the  engine,  are  not  so  generally  used  as  the  sight- feed 
lubricators,  but  heavier  oils  can  be  fed  with  the  force-feed  lubri- 


62  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

cators.  These  lubricators  can  be  used  advantageously  with  heavy 
engines  for  intermittent  service,  the  flow  of  oil  stopping  and 
starting  automatically  when  the  engine  is  stopped  or  started. 
They  can  also  be  used  to  advantage  with  variable  speed  engines. 
The  manufacturers  of  mechanical  lubricators  claim  that  better 
lubrication  is  obtained  by  feeding  a  little  of  the  oil  at  each  stroke 
of  the  piston  than  can  be  had  with  the  usual  hydrostatic  lubri- 
cators. 

Cylinder  Stocks. — For  the  methods  of  manufacture  and  for 
actual  analyses  of  cylinder  stocks  see  Index.  These  stocks  are 
straight  undistilled  petroleum  products.  The  light  oils  present 
in  the  original  petroleum  have  been  removed,  usually  by  steam 
distillation,  and  the  residue  left  in  the  still  is  purified  by  more  or 
less  complete  filtration.  The  residues  from  the  distillation  of 
many  crudes  are  unsuitable  for  making  cylinder  stocks,  and  are 
not  so  used,  but  are  used  as  car  oils,  fuel  oils,  etc.  Sometimes 
a  low  viscosity  cylinder  oil  is  made  by  cutting  back  a  heavier 
cylinder  stock  with  a  very  limited  amount  of  heavy  engine  oil, 
but  such  a  blended  oil  will  have  a  low  flash  test.  The  cylinder 
stocks  are  treated  for  the  removal  of  paraffin  so  as  to  improve  the 
cold  test.  However,  high  viscosity  stocks,  as  for  valves,  will 
have  a  pasty  character  particularly  in  winter. 

Western  stocks  have  a  lower  gravity  than  Pennsylvania  stocks, 
so,  unless  Pennsylvania  stock  is  used,  a  high  gravity  stock  should 
not  be  required.  Much  of  the  difficulty  in  using  western  stocks 
comes  from  insisting  that  they  comply  with  the  gravity  standard 
of  Pennsylvania  oils,  whereas  the  important  consideration  is  the 
viscosity  of  the  oil  at  210°  F.  and  higher.  Pennsylvania  stocks 
have  a  gravity  of  25°  to  29°  Be.  with  viscosities  ranging  from  90 
to  250  or  over  at  210°  F.  The  higher  viscosity  oils  (170  and  over) 
are  rarely  filtered.  Western  stocks  have  gravities  as  low  as  18° 
Be.  and  lower  flash  tests  than  Pennsylvania  stocks. 

The  most  important  consideration  is  the  viscosity  at  the  work- 
ing temperatures.  The  working  temperatures  are  about  140°  to 
150°  F.  for  the  lubricator,  and  above  210°  F.  for  the  cylinder. 
While  the  viscosity  in  the  cylinder  is  lower  than  the  viscosity 
as  determined  at  210°  F.,  yet  the  working  viscosity  in  the  cylinder 


LUBRICATION   OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES  63 

is  directly  proportional  to  the  viscosity  taken  at  210°  F,  and  so 
oils  can  be  correctly  compared  and  judged  on  that  basis. 

In  order  to  feed  properly,  the  stocks  should  be  free  from  tar. 
Green  stocks  are  usually  free  from  excessive  amounts  of  tarry 
matter,  but  all  stocks  should  preferably  be  tested  by  the  gasoline 
test.  Any  asphaltic  or  tarry  matter  will  fail  to  dissolve  in  the 
gasoline  and  will  settle  out  so  that  it  can  be  readily  seen. 

Cylinder  Oils. — Cylinder  oils  are  made  by  compounding  (mix- 
ing) cylinder  stocks  with  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  Cylinder 
stocks  are  never  used  alone  for  lubricating  saturated  steam 
cylinders  except  where  the  condensed  water  is  to  be  used  again 
for  some  purpose,  and  are  rarely  used  alone  for  lubricating  sup- 
erheated steam  cylinders,  at  least  in  this  country.  A  certain 
amount  of  fixed  oil  (fatty  oil)  is  necessary  to  keep  the  wet  steam 
from  displacing  the  oil  from  the  friction  surface  of  the  cylinders 
and  valves.  A  straight  mineral  oil  will  not  form  or  maintain  an 
oil  film  on  metal  in  the  presence  of  hot  water,  that  is,  it  will  not 
"wet"  the  metal,  and  so  will  not  lubricate.  Fatty  oils  will  "wet" 
metal  in  the  presence  of  hot  water  and  they  have  the  property  of 
keeping  this  valuable  characteristic  even  when  mixed  with  mineral 
oils. 

Varying  amounts  of  fixed  oils  are  required,  ranging  from  2 
to  12  per  cent,  or  over,  the  lower  per  cent,  being  sufficient  for 
very  dry  steam  and  the  higher  per  cents,  being  required  for  very 
wet  steam,  as  is  present  in  low-speed  cylinders.  The  usual  cylin- 
der oils  contain  less  than  12  per  cent,  of  fatty  oil,  the  amounts 
ordinarily  present  being  from  4  to  10  per  cent. 

Practically  all  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable  oils  have  been  used 
at  times  for  compounding  cylinder  oils.  The  most  generally  pre- 
ferred is  tallow  oil,  but  neatsfoot  oil,  lard  oil,  degras,  degras  oil, 
rape  oil,  blown  rape  oil,  cottonseed  oil  and  even  linseed  oil  have 
been  used.  The  animal  oils  are  preferred  on  account  of  their 
non-gumming  character.  Rape  oil  is  popular  abroad,  and  blown 
rape  oil  is  used  as  it  has  a-  high  viscosity  which  makes  the  vis- 
cosity of  the  compounded  oil  not  much  lower  than  the  viscosity 
of  the  stock  from  which  it  was  compounded.  The  addition  of 


64  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

fatty  oil  greatly  lowers  the  viscosity  of  the  cylinder  stock  to 
which  it  is  added,  even  more  than  would  be  expected. 

Excessive  amounts  of  fatty  oils,  above  that  actually  required, 
should  not  be  added  to  cylinder  stocks  as  the  fatty  oils  break 
down  somewhat  under  the  action  of  steam,  forming  free  fatty 
acids  which  attack  the  metal  of  the  cylinder.  Carefully  com- 
pounded oils  do  not  give  any  trouble  in  this  particular. 

The  oils  used  for  compounding  cylinder  oils  should  be  "acid- 
less,"  as  acidless  tallow  oil;  that  is,  they  should  contain  less  than 
2  per  cent,  of  free  acid  calculated  as  oleic  acid. 

If  the  exhaust  steam  is  to  be  condensed  and  used  over  again  it 
is  important  that  the  amount  of  fatty  oils  be  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum so  that  the  oil  can  be  separated  from  the  water  readily. 
This  is  true  in  the  case  of  cylinder  oils  for  ice  plants  and  for 
marine  engines  which  are  often  operated  with  straight  cylinder 
stocks. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  high  viscosity  cylinder  stocks  have 
better  adherence  to  hot,  wet  metal  than  have  lower  viscosity 
stocks,  and  so  require  no  more  fixed  oils  than  do  cylinder  oils  for 
lower  pressures.  The  high-flash,  high-viscosity  oils  are  more 
difficult  to  atomize,  but  proper  location  of  steam  pipe  and  proper 
installation  of  the  lubricator  will  result  in  good  atomization  with 
the  higher  pressure  steam. 

For  superheated  cylinders,  oils  are  compounded  from  high  fire- 
test,  high  viscosity  stocks  and  3  to  II  per  cent,  of  animal 
oil,  usually  tallow  oil.  As  much  as  n  per  cent,  is  not  usually 
required  for  stationary  engines,  but  may  be  in  locomotive  practice 
on  account  of  greater  condensation  from  cooling  in  winter  or  to 
make  possible  the  lubrication  of  the  low-pressure  cylinders  of 
compound  engines  with  the  oil  carried  by  the  exhaust  steam  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinders.  The  viscosity  of  the  finished  oil  is 
rarely  as  low  as  140,  and  is  usually  between  160  and  220  at  210° 
F.  Cylinder  oils  for  saturated  steam  have  viscosities  from  100  to 
220  at  210°  F. 

Filtered  cylinder  oils  are  not  usually  required  for  either  sat- 
urated or  superheated  steam  cylinders. 


LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES 


Analyses  of  Some  Cylinder  Oils. — The  following  analyses  were 
recently  made  by  the  author : 


1 

No.  of  oil 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Kind  of  oil 

Pasty 
filtered 

Bright 
filtered 

Bright 
filtered 

Steam 
refined 

Filtered 
railroad 

Filtered 
railroad 

stock 

stock 

stock 

stock 

super- 
heater 

saturated 

Baume  gravity  

22.0 

23.1 

26.2 

25-6 

25.5 

26.0 

Flash  test  (°F)  ... 

(550) 

510 

545 

585 

535 

(530) 

Viscosity  at  I5O°F. 

458 

435 

406 

Viscosity  at  2io°F. 

183 

138 

141 

168 

180 

128 

Fatty  oils  (  %  )  

1-5 

(0.4) 

2.6 

0.9 

II.  2 

10.6 

Iodine  No.  (Hanus) 

12.0 

21.7 

22.1 

MaumeneNo.(°C.) 

3-5 

3-° 

4-5 

4-5 

ii.  5 

11.  0 

Volatile  at  350  °F. 

in  2-hours  (%}  — 

I.O 

— 

I.O 

0.8 

1-5 

1-7 

Acid  as  oleic  (  %  )  . 

— 

-  — 

0.22 

— 

1.  06 

No.  of  oil                      7 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

12 

Kind  of  oil 

Dark 
low 
pressure 

I.OW 

pressure 

High 
pressure 

Special 
low 
pressure 

High 
pressure 

Special 
low 
pressure 

Baume"  gravity  .... 

27.0 

22.5 

24-5 

25.0 

22.4 

22.6 

Flash  test  (°F)  ... 

485 

530 

570 

455 

550 

525 

Fatty  oils  (  %  )    ... 

9-5 

3-6 

5-3 

3-3 

7.0 

4-8 

Viscosity  at  150  °F. 

281 

465 

696 

341 

666 

463 

Viscosity  at  2  10  °F. 

IOO 

141 

220 

H5 

I87 

136 

Sample  No.  7  had  a  viscosity  of  975  at  ioo°F.,  and  572  at  i2o°F. 

Cylinder  Greases. — These  greases  require  special  type  lubri- 
cators so  that  the  greases  melt  to  oils  before  they  are  fed  to  the 
cylinders.  These  greases  consist  of  high  cold  test  cylinder  stocks 
compounded  with  enough  tallow,  degras  or  solid  fat  to  make 
them  fairly  firm  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Pasty  cylinder  stock 
of  the  valve  oil  type  may  be  used  or  vaseline  may  be  added  to  the 
"grease"  along  with  the  fats.  These  greases  melt  easily  and 
lubricate  substantially  in  the  same  way  that  the  oils  do  and  so 
would  be  tested  for  viscosity  and  amount  of  fats  in  the  same  way 
cylinder  oils  are.  Excessive  amounts  of  fats  should  be  absent 
and  no  soaps  should  be  present. 


66  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

Poor  Lubrication. — Indications  of  poor  lubrication,  either 
through  insufficient  amount  of  lubricant  reaching  the  cylinder  and 
valves  or  by  the  use  of  an  unsuitable  oil,  are  groaning  of  the 
valves  and  vibration,  as  in  heavy  Corliss  engines  and  in  engines 
used  for  air  compressors.  More  oil  should  be  used,  and  if  this 
does  not  quickly  correct  the  trouble,  the  valves  and  cylinders 
should  be  inspected  for  scoring  or  a  heavier  oil  should  be  used. 
Poor  lubrication  is  also  indicated  by  difficulty  in  manipulating  the 
valves,  as  in  locomotives.  The  use  of  graphite  in  the  cylinders 
or  in  the  cylinder  oil,  or  of  a  very  little  high-grade  mica,  has 
been  found  to  improve  the  tendency  of  the  valves  to  stick. 

Scoring  and  groaning  may  be  due  to  poor  lubrication  for  which 
the  oil  is  in  no  way  responsible,  but  may  sometimes  be  traced  to 
adjustment  of  the  lubricator  which  results  in  insufficient  lubricant 
reaching  the  cylinders,  or  by  poor  adjustment  of  the  pipe  con- 
veying the  oil  into  the  steam  pipe  so  that  the  oil  is  not  properly 
atomized  by  the  steam.  Any  scoring  of  the  cylinder  would  na- 
turally continue  to  prevent  proper  working  regardless  of  the 
character  of  the  subsequent  lubrication.  The  proper  remedy 
would  be  to  overhaul  such  cylinders  promptly. 

Good  lubrication  is  indicated  by  easy  working  of  the  valves, 
and  by  the  presence  of  oil  on  the  piston  rods  as  evidenced  by 
holding  a  piece  of  white  paper  against  the  rod.  By  removing  the 
cylinder  head,  proper  lubrication  will  be  shown  by  the  presence 
of  the  oil  film  and  by  the  absence  of  appearance  of  wear. 

Cylinder  Deposits. — These  deposits  may  form  on  account  of 
mineral  matter  brought  over  from  the  boiler  by  "foaming,"  es- 
pecially in  connection  with  the  use  of  excessive  amounts  of  boiler 
compound.  In  this  case  they  should  contain  large  percentages 
of  lime  and  magnesia  compounds,  or  compounds  derived  from 
the  boiler  treatment. 

Deposits  may  be  due  to  wear  from  insufficient  clearance  of  the 
rings  or  from  allowing  the  edges  of  the  rings  to  get  sharp.  In 
this  case  a  magnet  will  show  a  large  amount  of  metallic  iron 
present. 

Where  the  cylinder  oil  is  to  blame,  considerable  carbon  is  likely 
to  be  present  from  cracking  of  the  fatty  oils  present,  and  ex- 


LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES  67 

cessive  amounts  of  iron  rust  or  iron  oxide  show  the  action  of 
fatty  acids  on  the  metal.  The  fatty  acids  could  be  present  in 
the  original  oil  or  be  formed  from  excessive  amounts  of  fatty 
oils  in  the  cylinder  oils  under  the  action  of  steam.  Iron  oxide, 
however,  may  at  times  come  over  with  muddy  water  from  the 
boiler.  Fatty  acids  are  active  at  high  temperatures  and  rapidly 
corrode  iron  and  other  metals. 

If  an  asphalt  base  mineral  oil  has  been  used  asphalt  may  have 
been  formed  by  the  heat,  in  which  case  an  analysis  of  the  deposit 
would  show  considerable  organic  matter  insoluble  in  gasoline. 
With  superheater  engines,  particularly  locomotives  during  "drift- 
ing" immediately  after  a  hard  pull,  the  admission  of  oxygen  to 
the  hot  cylinders  may  carbonize  the  oil  remaining  in  the  cylinder. 

General  Engine  Lubrication. — For  lubricating  the  moving  parts 
of  steam  engines,  other  than  cylinders  and  valves,  a  good  grade 
of  engine  oil  should  be  used.  This  oil  is  preferably  a  straight 
mineral  oil  distillate  of  400°  F.  flash  test,  27°  to  31°  Be.  gravity, 
and  a  viscosity  of  180  to  250  at  100°  F.  For  large  engines  with 
circulating  oil  systems,  the  viscosity  need  not  usually  be  over  220 
at  100°  F.  as  an  oil  of  lower  viscosity  can  be  used  with  a  circulat- 
ing system  which  floods  the  bearings  than  without  a  circulating 
system  where  the  oil  must  be  fed  sparingly.  The  excess  oil  tends 
to  cool  the  bearings  and  so  maintain  the  viscosity  of  the  oil. 

As  more  or  less  water  comes  in  contact  with  the  oil  it  is  neces- 
sary to  separate  out  this  water  in  the  oil-filtering  process.  A  good 
quality  of  filtered  oil  should  therefore  be  used,  and  it  should  be 
protected  in  every  way  from  other  contaminating  oils.  If  an  oil 
too  high  in  fatty  oil  is  used  in  the  steam  cylinder,  some  of  this 
oil  may  finally  work  into  the  circulating  oil  supply  and  cause  it 
to  emulsify  with  the  water  to  an  objectionable  extent.  For  large 
engine  installations  it  is  desirable  that  oils  be  tested  for  emulsifica- 
tion  with  water,  and  an  oil  chosen  which  shows  little  emulsifica- 
tion. 

Marine  Engines. — Marine  engines  are  often  operated  without 
any  lubricant  to  the  cylinder  other  than  the  condensed  water, 
where  the  water  is  needed  for  further  use.    Upon  entering  port 
6 


68  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

cylinder  oil  is  fed  to  the  cylinder  to  prevent  the  idle  cylinder 
from  rusting.  Small  amounts  of  steam  refined  stocks,  without 
the  addition  of  fatty  oils,  can  sometimes  be  used  satisfactorily, 
but  the  addition  of  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  acidless  tallow  oil 
improves  the  lubrication.  By  using  an  oil  of  low  viscosity  (125 
to  140  at  210°  F.),  of  low  fatty  oil  content,  and  low  acidity,  ex- 
cessive emulsification  of  the  oil  with  the  exhaust  water  can  usually 
be  prevented. 

For  superheater  marine  engine  cylinders,  straight  high  viscosity 
refined  cylinder  stocks  may  be  used,  either  alone  or  compounded 
with  not  over  3  per  cent,  of  acidless  tallow  oil.  The  finished 
oil  should  have  a  viscosity  of  180  to  250  at  210°  F. 

For  general  engine  lubrication,  it  has  been  a  long  established 
custom  to  use  a  heavy  engine  oil  compounded  with  20  to 
30  per  cent,  of  blown  (thickened)  rape  oil.  This  increases  the 
viscosity  of  the  oil  to  over  350  at  100°  F.  It  is  important  that 
the  oil  be  free  from  fatty  acids  and  it  is  sometimes  advantageous 
to  add  some  other  fatty  oil  in  addition  to  the  rape  oil  to  overcome 
the  tendency  of  blown  rape  oil  to  separate  from  the  mineral  oil. 

Steam  Turbines. — Lubrication  is  usually  by  a  gravity  or  force- 
feed  circulating  system  which  makes  it  possible  to  use  a  thin  oil. 
High-grade,  pale  engine  oils,  known  as  viscous  neutrals,  are 
generally  used.  They  should  have  a  gravity  of  over  30°  Be.,  be 
straight  mineral  oil  distillates  free  from  acids,  and  have  a  flash 
point  around  400°  F.  Where  an  asphalt  base  oil  is  used  the 
flash  and  gravity  will  not  be  so  high.  The  oil  should  always  be 
tested  for  its  emulsifying  properties  as  the  oil  should  separate 
readily  from  water  in  practice. 

In  order  to  continue  to  separate  from  water  properly  and  main- 
tain a  suitable  viscosity  without  the  development  of  acidity,  the 
oils  should  be  practically  free  from  sulphur.  The  nature  of  the 
sulphur  compounds  is  important.  For  examples  of  oils  which 
thickened  and  changed  in  use,  see  Conradson,  /.  Ind.  &  Eng. 
Chem.  p.  179,  1910,  and  Herschel,  Tech.  Paper  No.  86  of  the 
Bureau  of  Standards,  pp.  35-36. 

The  oils  should  be  non-carbonizing  when  tested  as  for  motor 


LUBRICATION   OF   STEAM    CYLINDERS   AND   ENGINES  69 

oils  and  should  be  free  from  undistilled  residue.  In  practice  the 
amount  of  oil  in  the  circulating  system  should  be  ample  to  prevent 
any  great  increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  bulk  of  the  oil.  Sul- 
phur and  continued  high  temperature  of  the  oil  tend  to  develop 
acids  which  would  attack  the  bearings  and  cause  emulsification. 
The  maximum  working  temperatures  are  ordinarily  from  130° 
to  140°  F.,  but  according  to  Herschel  some  of  the  more  recent 
turbines  run  at  175°  F. 

The  oils  used  have  from  120  to  170  viscosity  at  210°  F.  The 
most  important  single  test,  after  the  viscosity  test,  is  the  emulsifi- 
cation test  which  gives  a  better  indication  of  the  behavior  of  the 
oil  in  use  in  a  circulating  system  than  can  be  obtained  by  any 
other  physical  or  chemical  tests.  (See  Emulsification  test  pages 
117-121,  also  pages  29-31.) 

ADDITIONAL  REFERENCES. 

F.   L.   Fairbanks,   address  on  "Lubrication  of   Bearings  and   Cylinders," 

Power,  42,  pp.  805-808,  1915. 
Richardson  and  Hanson  on  "Valuation  of  Cylinder  Oils,"  /.  Soc.  Chem. 

Ind.,  24,  315-319,  1905. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  LUBRICATION  OF  STEAM  RAILWAYS. 

Locomotive  Cylinders  and  Valves. — The  cylinder  oils  are  applied 
to  the  cylinders,  valves  and  air  compressor  by  means  of  a  triple 
feed,  and  sometimes  by  a  five-feed,  sight-feed  lubricator.  The 
usual  method  is  by  means  of  a  triple-feed  lubricator  feeding  to 
the  slide  valves  or  steam  chest  on  either  side,  and  to  the  air  com- 
pressor, the  cylinder  getting  its  lubrication  more  or  less  indirectly 
from  the  steam  chest. 

The  conditions  outlined  in  the  previous  chapter  for  cylinder 
oils  for  superheated  and  saturated  steam  apply  also  to  the  lubri- 
cation of  locomotives.  The  opportunity  for  cooling  of  steam 
pipes  and  cylinders  is  much  greater  with  a  rapidly  moving  loco- 
motive than  with  a  stationary  engine,  particularly  in  winter,  and 
so,  with- saturated  steam  at  least,  sufficient  condensation  is  likely  to 
occur  to  make  the  use  of  the  minimum  amounts  of  fatty  oils  inad- 
visable. Good  locomotive  cylinder  oils  contain  from  7  to  12  per 
cent,  of  saponifiable  or  fatty  oil  so  as  to  be  reliable  under  all 
working  conditions,  the  most  usual  amount  being  around  10  per 
cent.  There  are  doubtless  conditions  for  small,  or  poorly  oper- 
ated engines,  where  as  much  as  15  per  cent,  fatty  oil  will  be 
needed,  but  this  is  the  exception. 

Saturated  Steam  Cylinders. — In  saturated  steam  practice  it  is 
unnecessary  to  stress  a  high  flash  or  fire  test  oil,  as  practically 
all  oils  have  sufficiently  high  tests  to  meet  all  requirements,  and 
unnecessarily  high  flash  or  high  viscosity  oil  does  not  atomize 
with  the  steam  quite  so  readily  as  does  somewhat  lower  flash  oil. 
It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  use  oils  of  high  viscosity  for  saturated 
steam  locomotives,  oils  from  115  to  135  viscosity  at  210°  F. 
meeting  all  requirements  for  successful  lubrication  and  low  oil 
consumption.  Cylinder  oils,  in  order  to  feed  properly,  should 
be  free  from  tar  as  shown  by  the  gasoline  test.  A  cold  test  of 
50°  or  60°  F.  is  usually  satisfactory.  If  western  oil  is  used  the 
gravity  should  not  be  seriously  considered,  as  an  effort  to  get  a 
certain  gravity  oil  would  result  in  the  sacrifice  of  some  more 


THE   LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS  71 

vital  property,  for  example,  a  lowering  of  the  viscosity  shown  at 
210°  F. 

It  is  customary  to  use  the  same  oil  for  the  cylinders  and  the 
air  compressors.  A  high  flash  oil  of  the  cylinder  oil  type  is  neces- 
sary for  locomotive  air  compressors  as  they  are  air-cooled  which 
permits  compression  temperatures  of  500°  F.  or  over. 

Cylinder  Deposits. — These  may  be  caused  by  foaming  in  the 
boiler,  as  with  excess  of  boiler  compound  or  with  certain  waters 
containing  much  dissolved  matter,  in  which  cases  the  deposit  will 
show  much  lime  and  magnesia,  and  sometimes  iron  oxide  from 
muddy  water.  Scoring  of  the  cylinders  will  be  detected  by  me- 
tallic iron  in  the  cylinder  deposit  as  evidenced  by  a  magnet.  The 
oil  may  be  to  blame  in  certain  rare  cases,  either  by  decomposing 
under  the  heat  with  carbon  and  asphalt  formation,  or  by  the 
breaking  up  of  the  fatty  oils  which  yields  corrosive  fatty  acids. 
The  latter  condition  may  result  where  the  oil  is  compounded  with 
fatty  oil  which  is  not  "acidless"  or  where  too  large  a  percentage 
of  fatty  oil  is  used  in  compounding,  the  valves,  etc.,  being  pitted 
or  corroded  with  the  formation  of  much  red  iron  oxide  or  rust. 

With  superheater  locomotives,  the  practice  of  "drifting"  or 
coasting  with  air  admitted  to  the  cylinders,  particularly  just  after 
a  hard  pull,  will  result  in  actually  burning  up  the  oil  and  forming 
a  carbonaceous  residue.  This  leaves  the  cylinder  and  valves 
without  lubrication  after  steam  is  re-admitted  to  the  cylinder  as 
some  time  is  required  to  form  a  new  film  of  the  oil.  Burning  of 
the  oil  does  not  seem  to  take  place  much  below  550°  F.  or  in  the 
presence  of  steam,  so  if  the  air  is  not  introduced  until  a  moment 
or  two  after  the  severe  pull  is  ended,  the  oil  is  less  likely  to  be 
destroyed.  The  introduction  of  the  hot  front  end  gases  at  any 
time  is  likely  to  consume  the  oil  as  well  as  introduce  cinders  and 
ashes  which  destroy  the  oil  and  form  very  undesirable  deposits. 
During  drifting,  the  low-pressure  exhaust  steam  could  be  used 
to  advantage  in  the  superheated  cylinders. 

Superheated  Steam  Cylinders. — The  pressures  are  not  neces- 
sarily any  greater  than  with  saturated  steam  cylinders,  but  the 
temperatures  are  much  higher,  possibly  as  high  as  600°  or  700° 


72  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

F.  at  times.  Consequently  a  large  percentage  of  the  oil  is  finally 
vaporized.  Much  of  it  is  vaporized  by  the  superheated  steam 
after  atomization  in  the  steam  pipe,  in  which  case  the  oil  vapor 
seems  to  "lubricate"  the  steam  and  condense  on  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder  during  the  cooling  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder.  While 
a  high  flash  test  is  desirable,  an  unduly  high  flash  or  fire  test  will 
prevent  proper  atomization  and  volatilization  of  sufficient  oil  to 
give  the  best  results.  Superheated  steam  is  dry  and  has  no  lub- 
ricating value  as  wet  steam  has. 

Cylinder  oils  for  use  in  superheated  locomotive  cylinders  should 
be  able  to  stand  a  good  heat,  say  5  or  6  hours  in  an  air  bath  at 
506°  to  550°  F.  without  developing  material  insoluble  in  gaso- 
line. When  an  engine  can  run  50  or  75  miles  on  a  pint  of  valve 
oil,  as  in  general  practice,  the  quality  of  the  oil  is  much  more  of 
a  consideration  than  the  price  per  gallon.  Excessive  amounts  of 
oil  are  not  desirable. 

On  account  of  superheated  steam  being  dry,  and  on  account  of 
the  greater  adhesive  properties  of  the  high  viscosity  petroleum 
oils,  very  small  amounts  of  fatty  oils  are  really  necessary.  How- 
ever, it  is  customary  to  use  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  fatty  oil, 
usually  the  latter  amount  in  order  to  meet  the  varied  requirements 
of  locomotive  service.  There  are  likely  to  be  times  when  the 
cylinders  work  wet.  It  is  also  desirable  to  lubricate  the  low- 
pressure  cylinders  in  compound  locomotives  with  the  waste  oil 
brought  over  by  the  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders.  For 
the  lubrication  of  these  low-pressure  cylinders,  the  same  amount 
of  fatty  oil  is  necessary  as  for  other  saturated  steam  cylinders. 

The  viscosity  of  superheater  oils  varies  from  135  to  180  at 
210°  F.  Saturated  valve  oils  with  viscosities  of  135  to  140  at 
210°  F.  will  generally  lubricate  superheater  valves  and  cylinders 
satisfactorily  under  normal  conditions. 

While  the  tendency  is  generally  toward  rather  high  pressures 
and  a  high  degree  of  superheat  in  American  locomotive  practice, 
for  example,  22O-pounds  pressure  and  230°  of  superheat 
(equivalent  to  about  625°  F.  actual  steam  temperature),  there 
are  some  types  of  locomotives  using  a  low  degree  of  superheat. 
These  locomotives  show  only  about  30°  of  superheat  at 


THE   LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS  73 

the  cylinder  which  is  about  enough  to  insure  the  steam  being  dry 
at  the  time  it  enters  the  cylinder,  consequently  the  lubrication 
conditions  are  practically  the  same  as  for  saturated  steam 
cylinders. 

American  practice  is  toward  heavier  locomotives,  and  more 
exacting  service  conditions  with  longer  trains  and  heavier  cars. 
The  increase  of  superheater  locomotives  from  almost  none  to 
some  20,000  in  the  last  10  years  has  rendered  a  more  careful 
study  of  cylinder  lubrication  necessary. 

Special  Apparatus  for  Studying  Cylinder  Oils. — A  valuable 
apparatus  for  studying  the  behavior  of  cylinder  and  valve  oils 
with  saturated  and  superheated  steam  has  been  devised  by  Dr. 
P.  H.  Conradson.  For  description  of  apparatus,  method  of 
operation,  results  obtained  and  discussion  of  results,  see  papers 
by  Dr.  Conradson  in  /.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Chem.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  744-745 
(1912)  ;  8th  Int.  Cong,  of  Appl.  Chem.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  127-129,  and 
Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  13-17;  also  address  before  the  Cincinnati  Rail- 
way Club,  May,  1915. 

This  apparatus  is  essentially  a  small  boiler  equipped  with 
gauges,  superheater,  thermometers,  hydrostatic  or  sight-feed  lub- 
ricator for  feeding  the  oil  when  the  steam  has  reached  the  de- 
sired temperature,  a  horizontal  glass  cylinder  for  observing  the 
oil-steam  mixture  or  for  heating  a  weighed  amount  of  oil  in  a 
dish,  and  a  condenser  for  recovering  the  oil  and  steam.  The 
steam  rate  is  judged  by  the  amount  of  condensed  water. 

The  apparatus  can  be  used  with  temperatures  up  to  1,000°  F. 
which  is  300°  or  400°  F.  higher  than  required  in  the  most  ex- 
acting service  conditions  for  superheater  locomotives.  Admis- 
sion of  air  into  the  apparatus  at  550°  F.  or  higher  shows  the  car- 
bonization and  destruction  of  oils  which  results  from  the  prac- 
tice of  "drifting"  or  coasting  with  air  admitted  into  hot  steam 
cylinders. 

Dr.  Conradson  says : 

"It  is  interesting  to  note  that  cylinder  oils  containing  rather  a  large 
percentage  of  saponifiable  fats  or  fat  oils  generally  come  over  at  much 
lower  temperatures  than  the  main  portions  of  the  petroleum  stock  oils 
that  are  commonly  used  in  compounding  first-class  cylinder  oils. 

"The  cylinder  oils  may  leave  a  residue  in  the  dish  at  steam  tempera- 


74 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


tures  below  700°  F. ;  if  so,  such  residue  should  give  a  clear  solution  in 
90  cc.  of  0.65  specific  gravity  (87°  Be.)  petroleum  ether  (Pennsylvania) 
and  show  no  precipitate  on  standing.  At  steam  temperatures  of  850°- 
900°  F.,  all  the  oil  has  usually  been  volatilized  with  the  steam;  good  oils 
should  leave  no  carbonaceous  or  coky  residue." 

The  accompanying  table  of  comparative  tests  of  five  samples 
of  cylinder  oils,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  a  petroleum  distillate,  is 
of  particular  interest  in  connection  with  the  study  of  cylinder  oils 
in  superheated  steam.  (From  8th  Int.  Cong.  App.  Chem., 
XXVII,  pp.  13-17,  paper  by  Dr.  Conradson.) 


A. 
Fahr. 

B. 
Fahr. 

c. 
Fahr. 

D. 

Fahr. 

E. 
Fahr. 

F. 
Fahr. 

Flash  point  (open 

SA*° 

<^0° 

601° 

CQCO 

ccr\° 

-jficO 

*-utv  
Burning  point  .  .  . 
Gravity    at    6o°F. 
"Ranm^ 

M5 

610 
26  4 

530 
26  I 

005 
695 

oVo 
680 

DOU 
630 

«3°o 
415 

Sp.  gr.  at  I5°C.... 
Color 

0.895 
T  ip"Vit 

0.897 
Dark 

*4-/ 

0.905 
Dark 

*o-y 

0.898 

V    dark 

— 

33-5 
0.856 

Gas.   test  bef.    fire 
test  • 

Good 

Good 

Gas.  test  after  fire 
test 

Good 

Good 

Good 

Cold  test  flows   •  •  . 
Saponifiable  fats  •  • 
Vis.  Say  bolt  at  2  1  2° 
F.  (6occ.)  . 
Barbey  ixomit  500° 
F    

+  55°F. 
Trace 

133  sec. 
AC  sec 

+32°F. 
Trace 

146  sec. 
51  sec 

+45°F. 
Trace 

215  sec. 
61  sec 

.     t~^. 

+34°F. 
Trace 

2i6]sec. 
60  sec 

+3o°F. 
15  % 

Zero 
None 

(180  units  =  3000.) 
Hot  air  test  at  540° 
F    (loss^  ••    • 

TC% 

ii  % 

2    5  tfn 

5c  G£ 

Gas  test  after    
Carbon  test  residue 
SO3  in  residue  
Loss    super,  steam 
4oo°F    

±o/° 
Good 

2.51% 
0.023% 

o  o% 

Good 

2.70$ 
0.03% 

O  e/f> 

0.5  cc. 

4.90^ 
0.03% 

•o/° 
3-5  cc. 
5-io^ 
0.04% 

O  OC/n 

O   O  tfr, 

70% 

Loss    super,  steam 
coo°K 

50 

6^7° 

£.- 

Loss    super,  steam 
600  °F 

.u 

IS  e: 

4-u 

18  o 

*»5 

6  c 

Q   c 

.O 

07 

Loss    super,  steam 
7oo°F    

10.  ^ 
A  A    Q 

Mo 

V'O 

°-o 

21'5 

» 

O^'O 

4U-O 

Total    loss    up    to 
7oo°F    •  • 

67    C 

-f.   c 

Gas.  test  of  oil  resi- 
due from  700°  test 

w-o 
Good 

Ou-0 

Good 

4°-5 
1.5  cc. 

3.0  cc. 

— 

— 

THE   LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS  75 

"Hot  Air  Test:  13  grams  of  oil  in  shallow,  round,  flat-bottom  iron 
dishes  exposed  6  hours  at  540°  F.  in  a  specially  designed  air  bath. 

"Gasoline  Test:  10  cc.  oil,  90  cc.  petroleum  ether  0.65  sp.  gr.  (from 
Pennsylvania  crude)  in  graduated  flat  precipitating  tubes,  taking  reading 
after  I  hour's  standing. 

"Carbon  test  using  35  grams  oil  according  to  Conradson's  apparatus 
and  method. 

"Superheated  Steam  Test :     13  grams  of  oil  used. 

"Sample  'A'  in  a  superheated  steam  test  at  800°  F.  (427°  C.)  left 
no  residue.  Sample  'C'  left  2.5  per  cent,  dry  carbonaceous  residue. 

"Sample  *E'  containing  15  per  cent,  of  saponifiable  fats  subjected  to 
the  superheated  steam  test  lost  26.5  per  cent,  up  to  600°  F. ;  the  oil  resi- 
due from  this  test  contained  17.5  per  cent,  saponifiable  fats.  This  indi- 
cates that  the  petroleum  oil  stock  (B  used)  goes  off  with  the  steam 
somewhat  faster  in  proportion  to  the  fat  oil  up  to  600°  F.  (350°  C.). 

"The  steam  pressures  used  in  these  tests  were  about  10  to  12  pounds 
per  square  inch.  A  large  volume  of  superheated  steam  passed  through 
the  apparatus  during  the  tests  (about  40  cc.  condensed  steam  per  minute). 

"In  these  superheated  steam  evaporating  tests  about  13  grams  of  oil 
were  weighed  into  the  small  dish  placed  inside  the  steam  vessel  D.  (The 
capacity  of  the  small  iron  dish  is  50  cc.  having  a  diameter  of  about  48  mm. 
and  30  mm.  high,  with  flat  bottom.) 

"The  steam  vessel  with  the  oil  in  the  dish  was  heated  up  to  about 
350°  F.  (176°  C.),  passing  a  slow  current  of  natural  gas  through  the 
apparatus,  then  superheated  steam  was  admitted,  the  gas  shut  off,  and 
the  temperature  raised  up  to  the  required  degree  and  ke'pt  constant  for 
about  75  minutes;  the  volatile  matter  in  the  oils  at  the  given  test  tem- 
perature generally  were  carried  over  with  the  steam  inside  of  60  minutes, 
allowing  about  15  minutes  extra  steaming.,  At  the. end  of  each  given 
temperature  test  the  steam  and  heat  were  shut  off;  after  cooling,  the 
dish  containing  the  oil  was  weighed  and  replaced  into  the  steam  vessel 
and  the  operation  repeated  for  the  next  temperature  test  and  so  on." 

For  a  critical  study  of  conditions  to  be  met  in  superheated 
practice  see  papers  by  C.  D.  Young  on  "Locomotive  Superheaters 
and  their  Performance"  in  the  /.  of  the  Franklin  Inst.,  July, 
1914,  pp.  1-83,  and  Aug.,  1914,  pp.  181-194,  and  Prof.  Goss's  in- 
vestigations on  "Superheated  Steam  in  Locomotive  Service," 
published  by  the  Carnegie  Institute,  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1910. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  German  railways  use  oils  of 
no  to  185  Saybolt  viscosity  at  210°  F.  for  saturated  steam. 
These  oils  have  a  gravity  of  18°  to  28°  Be.,  a  flash  point  of 
540°  F.  or  over  (open  cup)  and  contain  from  no  fatty  acids  up 


76  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

to  10  per  cent.  For  superheater  locomotives,  oils  of  the  follow- 
ing characteristics  are  used :  Saybolt  viscosity  180  to  300  at 
210°  F.}  gravity  17°  to  27°  Be.,  flash  point  around  600°  F.  (open 
cup),  fatty  oil  content  o  to  10  per  cent.  (Cf.  Holde,  Exam,  of 
Hydrocarbon  Oils,  Eng.  Ed.,  pp.  182-183).  The  superheaters 
used  have  higher  degrees  of  superheat  than  those  used  in  this 
country  until  comparatively  recently.  The  crude  petroleums 
used  may  be  very  different  from  the  Pennsylvania  oils  and  stocks 
used  in  this  country,  although  much  of  the  oil  has  been  imported 
from  the  United  States. 

For  actual  specifications  of  locomotive  cylinder  oils  see  pages 
174-176. 

Locomotive  Journals. — The  journals  of  most  locomotives  are 
now  equipped  with  "cellars"  below  the  driving  axle  to  feed  grease 
to  the  journal.  A  large  amount  of  grease,  from  80  to  125  pounds, 
is  required  to  pack  an  engine  completely,  most  of  it  being  required 
for  the  journals  of  the  driving  axles.  The  hard  grease  is  packed 
into  the  removable  cellar  so  that  the  cellar  is  filled  completely 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  grease  is  beaten  into  shape  to  fit  the 
axle.  The  cellar  is  then  fastened  below  the  axle.  A  strong 
spring  pushes  up  a  false  bottom  in  the  cellar  and  so  keeps  the 
grease  pressed  against  the  lower  side  of  the  axle.  Owing  to  the 
spring  pressure  and  the  friction  of  the  warm,  moving  axle,  the 
grease  wears  off  from  the  top  to  fit  the  axle. 

On  account  of  the  strong  spring  pressure  in  the  cellars  and 
the  great  pressures  on  the  journals,  the  grease  must  be  exceed- 
ingly hard  to  give  good  results  in  service.  It  is  customary  to 
use  a  grease  made  from  a  heavy  oil  and  a  large  percentage  of 
soda  soap,  with  some  water  and  an  excess  of  caustic.  A  grease 
containing  too  much  water,  or  insufficient  soaps  would  feed  too 
freely  to  be  economical  in  use,  necessitating  delays  for  frequent 
repacking.  With  a  single  packing  an  engine  should  make  a  large 
number  of  trips  as  the  springs  are  arranged  to  feed  most  of  the 
grease  from  the  cellar  with  a  little  attention  occasionally. 
Greases  containing  suitable  solid  lubricants,  as  graphite  or  mica, 
have  been  found  to  give  good  results  in  practice.  . 


THE   LUBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS  77 

The  pressures  on  locomotive  journals  are  enormous  on  account 
of  the  immense  weight  required  to  secure  the  necessary  tractive 
effort  to  move  trains  of  60  to  100  modern  cars,  some  of  90  tons 
capacity,  or  a  train  of  1,200  tons  or  more.  Also  on  account  of 
the  gauge  of  American  railroads  the  journals  must  be  made 
shorter  than  would  be  considered  good  practice  for  the  same' 
total  pressures  in  other  bearings.  When  it  is  considered  that  the 
pressures  may  amount  to  over  1,200  pounds  per  square  inch,  the 
difficulties  of  lubricating  a  large  journal  on  a  fast-moving  through 
train,  freight  or  passenger,  writh  its  attendant  high  temperatures 
from  friction  and  boiler  heating,  are  readily  apparent. 

To  meet  these  abnormal  conditions,  the. journals  are  well  fitted 
with  suitable  bearing  metal  which  soon  adjusts  itself  so  that  the 
fit  is  perfect,  making  a  bearing  ideal  for  lubrication.  The  bear- 
ings normally  work  at  a  temperature  of  130°  to  150°  F.  as  at 
least  this  much  heat  is  required  to  cause  the  heavy  grease  to 
soften  sufficiently  to  lubricate. 

The  waste  grease  from  the  locomotive  journals  is  usually  taken 
out  before  repacking  the  cellars.  This  grease  is  trimmed  to  re- 
move any  adhering  grit  or  impurities,  and  is  used  for  packing 
cellars  on  branch  lines  or  on  switch  or  yard  engines,  either 
directly  or  after  heating  and  straining  to  further  purify  the  used 
grease. 

Many  smaller  engines  have  not  been  fitted  with  cellars  for  using 
journal  grease  or  journal  compound,  and  for  these  a  suitable 
cylinder  stock  is  required.  Cylinder  oil  could  be  used  but  is  not 
necessary  as  it  is  more  expensive.  A  cylinder  stock  of  160  to  220 
at  210°  F.  usually  answers  all  requirements. 

Crank  Pins. — For  lubricating  the  pins  on  driving  wheels,  a 
grease  somewhat  like  journal  grease  is  required,  although  a  grease 
of  somewhat  lower  soap  content  and  a  little  lighter  oil  may  be 
used  satisfactorily.  The  grease  is  forced  into  a  small  (2-inch) 
cylindrical  grease  cup  in  the  driving  shaft,  and  a  screw  which 
just  fits  this  opening  is  screwed  in  until  it  presses  on  the  grease 
sufficiently  hard  to  force  grease  into  the  bearing  below.  As  the 
bearing  warms  up  soon  after  starting,  the  grease  begins  to  soften 


78  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

a  little  and  lubricate  the  driving  pins.  If  the  grease  is  too  soft, 
or  of  too  low  melting  point,  or  if  the  operating  conditions  get  too 
severe  from  any  cause,  the  grease  will  all  melt  out.  Also  if  the 
heat  from  the  pins  gets  higher  than  212°  F.  the  water  in  the  pin 
grease  will  vaporize  and  force  out  all  the  grease.  It  then  be- 
comes necessary  to  cool  the  engine  somewhat,  as  the  addition 
of  more  grease  would  have  a  similar  result.  Normally,  as  the 
grease  is  used  up,  the  screw  is  given  another  turn,  as  in  a  com- 
pression cup,  to  force  the  grease  down  to  the  pins. 

A  hard  grease  is  required  as  the  pressures  are  exceedingly 
high,  up  to  3,000  pounds  per  square  inch  at  starting.  The  lubri- 
cating conditions  are  favorable  as  the  pressure  is  intermittent, 
first  on  one  side  of  the  pin,  then  on  the  other,  so  that  the  grease 
has  an  opportunity  to  get  in  between  the  rubbing  surfaces. 

General  Engine  Lubrication. — For  general  lubrication  about 
the  engine  and  tender  a  good  engine  oil  of  220  to  270  viscosity 
at  100°  F.  gives  good  results.  Some  roads  use  regular  car  oil 
for  the  tender,  or  even  for  the  locomotive,  but  the  latter  is 
hardly  good  practice.  Systematic,  frequent  oiling,  as  is  gen- 
erally practiced  is  important.  It  is  better  to  use  small  amounts 
of  oil  frequently  than  to  flood  the  bearings  at  infrequent  intervals. 

Car  Journals. — The  great  difficulty  in  the  lubrication  of  car 
journals  is  not  in  getting  an  oil  thick  enough,  but  in  getting  an 
oil  that  will  feed  to  the  journal  properly  under  the  working  con- 
ditions. In  an  ordinary  bearing  the  pressure  is  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  journal  and  so  oil  will  feed  by  gravity  to  the  point  where 
it  is  needed.  With  car  journals,  the  friction  and  pressure  surface 
is  on  top  of  the  axle,  and  the  journal  is  equipped  with  a  box  to 
be  packed  with  oil-soaked  cotton  waste.  This  waste  should  be 
frequently  inspected,  and  loosened  up  or  repacked,  so  that  it 
presses  against  the  moving  axle,  else  there  is  no  way  for  the  oil 
to  get  to  the  friction  surface  of  the  journal.  Many  journals  are 
cut  with  suitable  grooves  to  hold  some  oil,  but  this  does  not  take 
the  place  of  careful  packing  and  regular  inspection.  One  journal 
not  properly  lubricated  may  heat  sufficiently  to  do  serious  dam- 
age to  the  car  and  its  content,  or  to  delay  the  whole  train.  The 


THE   IMBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS 


79 


present  high  state  of  railway  car  lubrication  has  only  been  at- 
tained by  rigid  inspection  of  all  cars  before  and  at  frequent  in- 
tervals during  the  run.  Well  fitted  journals  are  also  the  rule 
which  has  made  possible  exceedingly  low  lubricating  costs  per 
car  mile. 


Side  View  and  End  View  of  Car  Journal  Showing  Packing  in  Place. 
(By  courtesy  of  McCord  &  Co.,  Chicago.) 

In  preparing  waste  for  use  in  the  journal  boxes,  it  should  be 
soaked  for  several  days  and  then  squeezed  slightly  so  as  not  to 


8o 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


drip,  or  allowed  to  drain  well.  It  is  then  packed  into  the  box 
loosely  except  the  part  next  to  the  inner  end  of  the  box  which 
is  well  packed.  The  waste  should  come  up  against  the  lower 
half  of  the  journal.  The  waste  acts  as  a  wick  to  feed  the  oil 
to  the  moving  axle  which  carries  it  to  the  bearing. 

Car  journals  are  also  equipped  with  lubricating  pads  instead 
of  waste,  or  even  with  mechanical  force-feed  lubricators.  A 
thinner  oil  can  be  fed  with  these  devices. 

Car  Oils. — Car  oils,  well  oils,  black  oils,  or  reduced  oils,  are 
the  still  residues  from  crudes  which  were  originally  unsuitable, 
or  have  been  rendered  unsuitable  by  the  method  of  treatment, 
for  use  as  cylinder  stocks.  Usually  only  the  gasolines,  kerosene 
and  other  light  oils  have  been  removed.  Car  oils  have  ordinarily 
never  been  distilled.  The  winter  car  oils  are  made  by  removing 
less  of  the  lighter  oils,  or  by  cutting  back  the  summer  grade  of 
car  oil  with  some  light  distillate. 

The  following  analyses  of  car  oils  were  made  by  the  author : 


Sample  No. 

i. 

2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 

Summer 
car  oil 

.Summer 
car  oil 

Winter 
car  oil 

Winter 
black  oil 

Black 
engine  oil 

Gravity  (°B£)  

Viscosity  at  2io°F    .... 

•^1.4 
80 

•*5-  / 

f.c 

^/•4 
66 

6r 

Flash  point  (°F  )  

95 

°O 

V   dirty 

o/o 
T  ittle 

Black 

Black 

and  tarry 

sed. 

sed. 

sed. 

The  viscosity  of  winter  black  oil  is  high  enough  for  summer 
use,  so  far  as  actual  lubrication  of  the  journal  and  bearing  is 
concerned,  but  a  higher  viscosity  oil  is  required  in  summer  so  as 
to  feed  properly  by  means  of  the  waste.  The  friction  loss  is 
greater  with  the  heavier  oil  than  it  would  be  with  the  lighter 
winter  oil. 

It  has  been  customary  to  specify  the  viscosity  of  car  oils  at 
130°  F.  instead  of  at  210°  F.,  but  the  tendency  is  to  depend  more 
on  the  figures  at  210°  F. 

The  cold  test  of  summer  oil  is  not  important,  but  the  cold  test 


THE   IMBRICATION    OF   STEAM    RAILWAYS  8 1 

of  winter  oil  should  not  exceed  10°  F.  except  for  southern  cli- 
mates. Tarry  matter  should  not  exceed  5  per  cent,  by  the  gaso- 
line test.  This  'includes  all  sediment.  The  gravity  is  not  im- 
portant as  the  cost  is  an  important  consideration  and  specifying 
gravity  would  probably  make  it  necessary  for  some  roads  to  go 
to  distant  fields  to  meet  the  specification.  The  viscosity  for 
winter  oil  should  be  between  60  and  65  at  210°  F.,  and  for  sum- 
mer oil  80  to  100  at  210°  F.  The  flash  point  should  be  above 
250°  F.  in  winter  for  northern  climates  and  over  325°  in  sum- 
mer; for  southern  climates  the  flash  point  might  advantageously 
be  50°  higher  in  each  instance. 

Freight  cars  do  not  stay  on  one  road  long,  so  it  is  not  so  much 
to  the  interest  of  the  railway  company  to  furnish  a  high-grade 
expensive  oil.  Most  roads  use  about  the  same  grade  of  oil  and 
standard  methods  of  packing. 

Passenger  coaches  usually  stay  on  the  owner's  lines,  and  are 
lubricated  either  with  black  oil,  or  oil  of  a  somewhat  better  grade, 
or  with  an  oil  made  by  blending  cylinder  stock  with  black  car  oil. 

Shop  Oil. — For  air-cooled  compressors  use  a  high  grade  cylin- 
der stock,  for  water-cooled  compressors  use  a  regular  air  com- 
pressor oil  (see  Index). 

For  engine  lubrication  use  a  good  cylinder  oil  of  115  to  135 
viscosity  as  for  saturated  steam  locomotives.  Not  over  10  per 
cent,  of  fatty  oil  is  usually  required. 

Oil  Supplies. — Most  American  railroads  are  lubricated  on  a 
car-mile  and  engine-mile  basis.  Since  the  railroad  companies 
have  to  keep  a  close  account  of  the  supplies  issued  under  these 
contracts,  and  the  amounts  of  such  supplies  which  can  be  issued 
are  rigidly  restricted,  engineers  are  at  times  in  real  need  of  extra 
oil  or  grease  for  their  engines.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  this  to 
result  in  losses  of  thousands  of  dollars  in  upkeep  of  engines  with- 
out any  corresponding  saving  in  lubricant.  It  ought  to  be  to 
the  advantage  of  roads  not  to  be  too  strict  with  engineers  in  re- 
gard to  the  amount  of  valve  oil  and  other  lubricant  issued  to 
them.  Such  a  condition  as  is  often  present  on  many  railroads 


82  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

would  not  be  tolerated  if  the  purchaser  of  oil  supplies  was  the 
person  responsible  for  the  cost  of  up-keep  of  engines. 

Oil  supplies  should  be  kept  clean,  both  in  the  store-room  and 
in  the  hands  of  the  operating  engineers.  The  custom  of  keeping 
the  cylinder  oil  in  the  tallow  pot  warm  before  using  in  the  lubri- 
cator no  doubt  serves  to  settle  out  anything  which  might  choke  the 
lubricator.  Highly  filtered  oils  are  not  usually  required  for  steam 
cylinder  lubrication. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE  LUBRICATION  OF  COTTON  MILLS  AND 
OTHER  TEXTILE  MILLS. 

Cotton  mills,  in  common  with  other  plants  having  a  large  num- 
ber of  quick-moving  machines,  require  the  use  of  oils  with  as  low 
viscosity  as  is  consistent  with  minimum  wear,  otherwise  the  pre- 
ventable power  losses  may  be  enormous. 

The  total  cost  of  lubricants  used  in  a  large  mill  is  not  burden- 
some, but  the  preventable  losses  through  the  use  of  improperly 
selected  lubricants  may  easily  amount  to  many  times  the  sum 
paid  for  the  lubricants.  A  mill  with  60,000  submerged  spindles 
operated  at  11,000  revolutions  per  minute  requires  1,000  net  horse- 
power for  the  spindles.  A  mill  using  spindles  of  the  same  type 
at  7,000  revolutions  per  minute  requires  barely  half  as  much 
power  for  the  same  number  of  spindles.  A  saving  in  power  con- 
sumption of  10  per  cent.,  or  of  20  per  cent,  as  is  sometimes  pos- 
sible, amounts  to  a  considerable  sum  at  $20.00  per  horse-power- 
year. 

The  bulk  of  the  preventable  power  losses  in  cotton  mills,  so  far 
as  lubrication  is  concerned,  is  connected  with  the  more  scientific 
lubrication  of  spindles,  looms  and  shafting. 

Spindle  Lubrication. — An  oil  of  just  the  proper  viscosity  is 
more  necessary  for  spindles  than  it  is  for  any  other  class  of 
machinery.  The  light  weight,  the  speed,  the  special  design  and 
the  smooth  construction  of  the  spindle  make  possible  the  use 
of  a  very  thin  oil.  The  faster  the  spindle  the  more  fluid  the  oil 
should  be. 

Spindles  will  normally  run  from  10°  to  15°  F.  above  the  room 
temperature.  This  increased  temperature  does  not  indicate  wear, 
for  the  substitution  of  a  thinner  oil  would  in  many  cases  result 
in  a  temperature  only  6°  or  7°  above  room  temperature,  showing 
a  power  saving  with  the  thin  oil.  A  thicker  or  more  viscous  oil 
would  ordinarily  give  a  higher  temperature  with  a  correspond- 
ingly higher  power  consumption  per  spindle.  The  most  satis- 
factory spindle  lubrication  usually  accompanies  the  smallest  tem- 
7 


84 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


-BLADE 


-CLUTCH 


-BOLSTER. 


-PACKING 


-SPRING 


-STEP 


A  Modern  Ring  Spindle. 
(By  courtesy  of  the  Draper  Corporation,  Hopedale,  Mass.) 


LUBRICATION    OF   COTTON   AND   OTHER  TEXTILE    MILLS 


perature  rise.  A  5-degree  reduction  in  the  temperature  of  the 
spindle  by  a  change  of  oil  may  be  equivalent  to  a  saving  of  over 
10  per  cent,  of  the  power  required  to  operate  the  spindle.  The 
extra  power  has  been  consumed  in  stirring  the  oil,  the  lost  power 
being  turned  into  heat. 

Spindle  oils  must  have  sufficient  viscosity,  or  body,  to  keep  the 
bearings  apart  under  all  reasonable  conditions  and  so  prevent 
wear ;  but  with  such  high  speeds  less  viscosity  is  required  to  keep 
the  bearings  of  light  spindles  apart  than  is  generally  supposed. 

Spindle  oils  are  usually  pure  mineral  oil  distillates  which  have 
been  rendered  nearly  colorless  by  filtering  through  fuller's  earth 
or  boneblack.  They  should  be  free  from  mineral  acid  and  from 
tarry  or  gummy  matter,  and  they  should  usually  have  a  flash  test 
over  300°  F.  in  order  to  reduce  the  fire  hazard.  As  a  further 
indication  of  their  safety  so  far  as  starting  fires  or  spreading 
fires  otherwise  started  is  concerned,  the  low-flash  spindle  oils 
should  not  show  over  4  per  cent,  evaporation  in  8  hours 
at  150°  F.  The  viscosity  should  be  as  low  as  is  consistent  with 
a  safe  flash  point  and  with  the  prevention  of  wear. 

The  analyses  of  some  typical  spindle  oils  now  used  in  cotton 
mills  are  given  below : 


Submerged 
spindle 
oil 

I,iKht 
spindle 
oil  No.  i 

Light 
spindle 
oil  No.  2 

Regular 
spindle 
oil 

Heavy 
spindle 
oil 

Special 
heavy 
spindle 
oil  (?) 

Baum£  gravity  at  60°  F. 
Flash  test  (  °F  ) 

33-8 

33-0 

27C, 

32.6 
2»c 

34-1 

32.6 

•1  A  C 

27.0 

•ICC 

Fire  test  (  °F} 

z/o 

•*/o 
12O 

•22C 

0*0 
180 

5<*J 

•2QO 

ooD 

•JQC 

Viscosity  at    70°  F.  
"   ioo°F.  .... 

"    I20°F.   .... 

O^u 

61 
46 
41 

o-*" 
68 

49 

43 

6*0 
74 
53 
45 

jou 

101 
64 
52 

07^ 
174 

93 
68 

OVO 
202 
104 

75 

These  samples  gave  a  Maumene  number  of  3  or  4,  showing  pure 
mineral  oils  unmixed  with  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  The  sub- 
merged spindle  oil  lost  3.1  per  cent,  in  8  hours  at  150°  F.,  and 
21  per  cent,  in  6  hours  at  210°  F.  It  showed  a  loss  of  1.7  per 
cent,  in  24  hours  at  70°  F.  The  light  spindle  oil  No.  2  showed 
a  loss  of  2.7  per  cent,  in  8  hours  at  150°  F.  These  figures 
showing  evaporation  loss  may  be  taken  as  indicating  in  a  gen- 


86  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

eral  way  present  day  practice  so  far  as  safety  is  concerned,  but 
these  figures  should  be  taken  as  approximating  the  maximum 
permissible  loss  for  the  conditions  under  which  spindle  oils  are 
used.  It  is  hardly  practicable  for  the  oil  manufacturer  to  furnish 
an  oil  of  much  lower  viscosity  than  the  thinner  oils  given  above, 
without  at  the  same  time  lowering  the  flash  point  unduly  or  in- 
creasing the  evaporation  loss  to  a  point  inconsistent  with  ade- 
quate safety  from  a  fire  standpoint. 

The  cold  test  of  spindle  oils  should  not  exceed  15°  F.,  but  this 
is  a  condition  easily  met. 

The  Lubrication  of  Special  Spindles. — For  the  lubrication  of 
heavy  spindles,  such  as  mule  spindles  or  twister  spindles,  more 
viscous  oils  are  necessary  than  for  the  lighter  ring  spindles.  The 
lubrication  of  mule  spindles  would  generally  be  done  by  means 
of  such  oils  as  the  light  spindle  oils  and  the  regular  spindle  oils 
shown  above,  but  much  depends  on  the  weight  and  speed  of  the 
spindle,  heavy  spindles  requiring  the  heavier  oil  and  the  higher 
speed  spindles  requiring  the  lighter  oils. 

Twister  spindles  require  light  or  medium  oils  of  125  to  220 
viscosity  at  100°  F.,  an  oil  of  150  to  175  viscosity  being  suitable 
in  most  cases.  Such  oils  will  usually  show  from  26°  to  28°  Be. 
gravity  (very  expensive  oils  may  show  31°  Be.  gravity)  and  a 
flash  point  of  370°  to  420°  F. 

It  might  be  well  to  mention  at  this  point,  in  connection  with 
saving  power  through  correct  lubrication,  that  considerable  excess 
power  may  be  required  to  operate  the  spindle  when  the  band  pull 
is  greater  than  necessary.  It  is  as  important  that  all  bearings  and 
moving  parts  be  correctly  fitted  and  adjusted  as  that  a  suitable  oil 
be  used.  Spindles  should  be  oiled  regularly,  every  two  weeks  at 
most,  and  should  be  cleaned  as  often  as  regular  inspection  indi- 
cates may  be  required.  Gummy  material,  if  present,  may  be  re- 
moved by  rinsing  with  kerosene. 

Stainless  Oils. — The  so-called  "stainless  oils"  are  alleged  to  be 
more  readily  removed  from  the  fabric,  or  to  be  less  objectionable 
than  the  heavier  spindle  oils.  There  are  no  absolutely  stainless 
straight  mineral  oils  as  the  complete  removal  of  these  oils  from 
the  fabric  is  impracticable,  particularly  if  the  spot  is  not  removed 


LUBRICATION    OF   COTTON   AND   OTHER   TEXTILE    MIIJ.S          87 


at  once.  The  best  method  of  removal  is  to  treat  the  oil  spot 
with  olive  oil  or  other  fixed  oil,  let  soak  in  and  then  scour  with 
caustic  soda  solution  or  with  soda  ash. 

The  true  stainless  oils  are  altogether  or  largely  (50  per  cent,  or 
over)  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  Various  mixtures  of  these  have 
been  used,  such  as  sperm  oil,  lard  oil,  olive  oil,  cottonseed  oil, 
neatsfoot  oil,  etc.,  alone  or  in  mixtures.  These  oils  are  often 
used  in  lace  mills  or  mills  producing  fine  fabrics  where  the  value 
of  the  manufactured  product  is  sufficient  to  stand  the  added  cost. 
Spots  from  such  oils  can  usually  be  removed  completely  by  treat- 
ment with  suitable  alkali  solutions. 

It  is  generally  recognized  as  the  best  practice  to  take  the  neces- 
sary precautions  to  prevent  the  formation  of  oil  spots  on 
the  cloth  so  that  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  removal  of 
oil  spots  is  largely  obviated. 

Sewing  Machine  Oils. — In  general,  the  same  type  of  neutral, 
paraffin  or  "stainless  oils"  are  used  as  given  for  spindles.  Some 
mills  add  up  to  20  per  cent,  of  sperm  oil  or  other  fixed  oil  to 
the  mineral  spindle  oil.  The  viscosity  generally  ranges  from 
about  50  to  nearly  100  Saybolt  at  100°  F.,  the  heavier  oil  being 
used  for  heavy  sewing  machines. 

Loom  Oils. — Owing  to  the  character  of  work  done  by  looms 
and  the  different  types  of  looms,  a  large  range  in  viscosity  is 
necessary  to  meet  the  different  requirements.  The  oils  used  are 
generally  of  the  engine  oil  type,  and  range  from  heavy  spindle 
oils  for  the  light  looms  to  heavy  engine  oils  for  the  heavy  looms. 
The  viscosities  range  from  about  100  to  225  or  over.  The  an- 
alyses of  some  loom  oils  are  as  follows : 


Sample  No. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Baum£  gravity  
Flashiest  (°F.)  

Fire  tpQt  (°P  ^ 

26.5 

370 

27-3 
370 

20.6 

320 

24.2 
410 

30.6 
385 

31.0 
415 

25-5 
415 

20.1 
330 

Viscosity  at  70°  F.  -  -  . 
"  ioo°F.  ... 

"  I20°F.... 

4^D 
246 
126 

86 

4ou 
209 
I  O2 

72 

413 
165 
103 

40*-* 
543 

221 

136 

4*0 

398 
176 

us 

350 
1  60 
10$ 

495 
196 
124 

48l 
I96 

118 

The  oils  are  straight  mineral  oils  as  shown  by  the  Maumene 


88  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

test,  the  Maumene  number  ranging  from  4  to  6.  Oils  of  the  type 
of  the  first  four  are  most  generally  used. 

Oils  like  No.  4  and  No.  5  are  suitable  for  looms  in  woolen 
mills,  but  the  lighter  oils  are  generally  preferred. 

Neatsfoot  oil,  lard  oil  or  olive  oil,  either  alone  or  com- 
pounded with  mineral  oils,  is  often  used  for  lace  machines. 

The  cold  test  of  loom  oils  should  generally  be  below  20°  F. 

General  Mill  Lubrication. — In  order  to  avoid  mistakes  in  the 
use  of  oils,  the  number  of  oils  used  in  the  mill  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  A  spindle  oil,  a  medium  or  heavy  loom  oil,  a  very 
heavy  engine  oil  for  lubricating  shafting  and  for  general  heavy 
lubrication,  a  steam  cylinder  oil,  and  a  turbine  oil  should  be  ample 
for  most  practical  conditions.  The  whole  scheme  of  lubrication 
should  be  planned  so  as  to  have  oils  of  the  proper  type  and  proper 
viscosity  to  meet  the  actual  conditions  in  the  mill  and  then  each 
oil  should  be  used  for  lubricating  in  its  own  special  field.  It  is 
of  real  importance  that  the  oiling  be  in  charge  of  one  man  whose 
sole  or  principal  duty  is  to  see  that  all  machinery  under  his  care 
is  regularly  and  systematically  oiled  and  cleaned  as  often  as 
necessary.  This  is  the  most  certain  way  to  reduce  the  number  of 
mistakes,  and  to  save  oil  and  machinery.  By  such  a  procedure 
it  is  not  necessary  to  flood  the  bearings  and  so  waste  the  oil. 

Spoolers,  speeders,  pickers,  rolls  on  the  spinning  frames, 
twister  spindles,  and  miscellaneous  machinery  other  than  shaft- 
ing can  usually  be  lubricated  satisfactorily  with  the  medium  or 
heavy  loom  oil  used  for  the  looms  in  the  mill.  In  special  cases, 
some  of  this  machinery  may  need  a  heavier  oil  in  which  case 
the  engine  oil  used  on  shafting  can  be  used,  but  it  is  preferable 
to  use  the  lighter  loom  oil  on  the  faster  machinery  wherever 
practicable. 

Oils  used  with  success  on  the  various  classes  of  machinery  have 
viscosities  as  follows : 


Spoolers 
Speeders 
Pickers  • 
Combs  • . 
Cards  .  . . 
Beatei  s . . 


180-220       Saybolt  viscosity  at  ioo°F. 

160-220 

110-220 

160-220 

160-220 

175-220 


LUBRICATION    OF   COTTON   AND   OTHER   TEXTILE    MILLS          89 

Shafting  Lubrication. — For  shafting  a  very  heavy  engine  oil 
is  necessary.  Oils  with  a  viscosity  of  220  to  290  are  suitable. 
Generally  oils  from  220  to  250  can  be  used  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults. Oils  have  been  used  with  a  viscosity  as  low  as  140  at  100° 
F.,  but  this  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

In  order  to  prevent  constant  loss  of  power  it  is  necessary 
that  all  shafting  be  aligned  properly  and  lubricated  thoroughly. 
The  same  oil  can  be  used  for  shafting  and  for  general  engine 
lubrication,  such  as  bearings,  slides,  etc.,  but  not  for  steam  cyl- 
inder lubrication. 

Cylinder  Oils. — Cylinder  oils  are  compounded  from  cylinder 
stocks  and  varying  amounts  of  fixed  oils,  such  as  tallow  oils  or 
neatsfoot  oil.  The  Pennsylvania  stocks  are  preferable,  cylinder 
oils  from  such  stocks  rarely  being  below  24°  Be.  If  oils  other 
than  Pennsylvania  oils  are  used,  the  gravity  should  not  be  con- 
sidered at  all.  The  important  property  of  a  cylinder  oil  is  the 
viscosity  at  210°  F.  Light  cylinder  oils,  for  low-pressure  en- 
gines, can  be  used  with  a  viscosity  as  low  as  100  at  210°  F.,  but 
it  is  usually  inadvisable  to  use  an  oil  having  a  viscosity  below  120*. 
For  high-pressure  cylinders  the  oils  should  have  a  viscosity  of 
140  to  220  at  210°  F.  Low-pressure  cylinder  oils  should  be  com- 
pounded with  at  least  4  per  cent,  of  tallow  oil  or  other  fixed  oil, 
and  high-pressure  cylinder  oils  should  have  6  to  10  per  cent,  or 
more  of  fixed  oils.  When  cylinders  work  very  wet,  more  fatty 
oil  is  required.  The  flash  test  is  always  above  500°  F.  for  Penn- 
sylvania cylinder  oils  of  the  required  viscosity. 

Other  uses  of  cylinder  oils  in  cotton  mills  are  for  very  heavy 
bearings,  such  as  water  wheels,  on  certain  heavy  winders  and 
for  application  to  overheated  bearings,  especially  heavy  engine 
bearings,  in  an  emergency. 

The  bearings  and  slides  of  an  engine  can  usually  be  lubricated 
with  an  engine  oil  of  1 60  to  220  viscosity  at  100°  F. 

Turbine  Lubrication. — For  use  on  turbines  as  thin  an  oil  as 
possible  should  be  selected.  Turbines  normally  work  at  130°  F. 
and  above,  so  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  given  at  100°  F.  is  higher 
than  actually  present  under  working  conditions.  Well-filtered, 


90  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

pale  Pennsylvania  oils  of  high  gravity  and  low  viscosity  are  pre- 
ferred as  they  separate  from  water  more  readily  and  completely. 
An  oil  which  emulsifies  with  water  is  unsuitable  for  turbine 
lubrication.  Satisfactory  turbine  oils  should  usually  have  a  grav- 
ity above  30°  Be.,  a  flash  point  of  400°  F.,  and  a  viscosity  from 
125  to  1 60  at  1 00°  F.  Some  turbines  may  require  heavier  oils, 
but  this  is  seldom  the  case  in  cotton  mill  practice,  as  the  engines 
work  at  high  speeds.  The  use  of  turbines  for  cotton  mills  is 
increasing.  For  a  further  discussion  of  turbine  oils  and  the 
emulsification  test,  see  pages  29-31,  68-69,  and  117-121. 

Dynamo  Oil. — Oils  for  dynamos  and  electric  motors  should  be 
high-grade  engine  oils,  preferably  above  30°  Be.,  flash  400°  F. 
or  above,  and  viscosity  from  120  to  200  at  100°  F.,  depending  on 
horse-power  developed.  Light  electric  motors,  below  15  horse- 
power, can  be  lubricated  with  a  good  medium  loom  oil  or  even 
with  a  heavy  spindle  oil. 

Lubricating  Greases. — Cotton  mills  use  greases  ranging  from 
.the  soft,  pasty  "non-fluid"  oils  to  grease  of  No.  3  body. 

The  non-fluid  oils  and  the  very  soft  greases  are  often  used  for 
lubricating  looms  and  cards  where  the  tendency  of  an  oil  to 
splash  would  be  undesirable.  Such  greases  are  made  by  com- 
pounding certain  heavy  metal  soaps  with  light  mineral  oils.  The 
pasty  character  of  the  oil  or  grease  also  prevents  too  rapid  con- 
sumption and  consequent  waste  of  the  lubricant.  The  soft 
"comb-box"  greases  are  finding  many  uses  in  cotton  mills,  for 
lubricating  top  rolls,  drawing  frames,  speeders,  spinning  frames, 
comb-boxes  on  cards,  loom  cams,  etc. 

The  heavier  grades  of  this  pasty  type  of  grease  are  also  em- 
ployed in  rod  cups  where  the  copper  rod  serves  to  heat  up  and 
melt  the  grease  so  as  to  feed  to  the  bearing  as  needed.  While  this 
cuts  down  the  amount  of  lubricant  consumed,  a  loss  of  power 
may  easily  result  from  deficient  lubrication  if  the  grease  is  n'ot 
very  easily  melted.  The  fact  that  these  greases  are  widely  used 
indicates  that  they  have  real  value  in  preventing  undesirable  oil- 
splashing  and  in  reducing  the  amount  of  damaged  fabrics. 

The  regular  cup  greases  of  No.  3  body  are  used  on  certain 


LUBRICATION    OF   COTTON    AND   OTHER   TEXTILE    MILLS          91 

heavy,  closed  bearings,  such  as  for  beaters  and  cards.  All  of  the 
above  greases  contain  light,  paraffin  oils.  The  greases  containing 
heavy  oils,  similar  to  the  greases  used  for  heavy  automobile 
transmission,  apparently  are  seldom  used.  Graphite  and  mica 
greases  find  a  more  or  less  limited  use  for  heavy  work. 

The  Lubrication  of  Knitting  Mills. — Ordinarily  about  two 
grades  of  oil  are  sufficient.  For  the  small  running  parts  a  spindle 
oil  of  not  over  100  viscosity  is  suitable.  For  the  heavier  needle 
plates  a  paraffin  or  neutral  oil  of  140  to  180  viscosity  usually 
proves  satisfactory.  These  two  oils  should  usually  serve  for 
lubricating  a  mill  operated  by  small  electric  motors,  the  spindle 
oil  being  suitable  for  lubricating  small  motors  with  ring  bearings 
and  the  heavier  oil  (engine  oil)  could  be  used  with  satisfactory 
results  on  the  larger  electric  motors. 


CHAPTER  XL 


THE  LUBRICATION  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS 
AND  MACHINES. 

A.  FLOUR  MILLING  MACHINERY. 

The  heavy  rolls  in  the  grinding  machines  revolve  at  high  speeds 
and  are  subjected  to  grinding  friction  and  grinding  pressure 
throughout  their  whole  length.  Consequently  the  bearings  always 
run  warm  which  greatly  increases  the  tendency  to  squeeze  out  the 
oil.  It  is,  therefore,  usual  to  lubricate  the  bearings  of  the  rolls 
with  a  very  heavy  engine  oil  of  220  to  260  viscosity  at  100°  F. 
Some  operators  prefer  to  use  an  extra  heavy  mineral  castor  oil 
which  seems  to  give  ample  lubrication  while  at  the  same  time 
resisting  the  tendency  to  squeeze  out  of  the  bearings.  Where  rod 
cups  have  been  tried  the  bearings  seem  to  run  hotter  than  where 
oil  is  used,  as  the  increased  temperature  is  required  to  make  the 
grease  flow  regularly.  Only  soft  greases  should  be  used  where 
the  bearings  are  equipped  with  cups  for  grease  lubrication.  Gen- 
erally a  No.  3  grease  is  much  too  solid  for  this  use. 

The  light  rollers  and  smaller  bearings  are  lubricated  with  min- 
eral castor  oil  or  with  a  light  engine  oil  of  160  to  180  viscosity. 
All  the  rolls  should  be  systematically  oiled  daily  by  a  regular, 
competent  oiler  who  is  not  burdened  with  too  many  other  duties. 

Certain  small  inner  rollers  whose  bearings  are  in  contact  with 
the  flour  are  lubricated  perfectly  without  the  addition  of  any 
lubricant  besides  the  flour. 

The  large  amount  of  heavy  shafting  requires  special  attention. 
A  very  heavy  engine  oil  of  220  to  275  viscosity  is  required. 

For  the  lubrication  of  a  modern  flour  mill,  only  a  very  few  oils 
are  required.  Besides  the  steam  cylinder  oils,  there  is  usually 
needed  a  light  engine  oil  of  140  to  180  viscosity  for  light  ma- 
chinery, such  as  fans,  motors,  small  rolls,  etc.,  a  mineral  castor 
oil  for  the  grinding  rolls,  and  a  heavy  engine  oil  of  about  250 
viscosity  for  the  shafting  and  for  general  engine  lubrication.  On 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  dust,  bearings  should  be  inspected 
and  cleaned  regularly. 


LUBRICATION  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS  AND  MACHINES      93 

The  bearings  of  conveyer-carriers  are  lubricated  with  a  heavy 
engine  oil  of  225  to  270  viscosity. 

For  the  lubrication  of  high-  and  low-pressure  steam  cylinders 
see  Index.  General  engine  lubrication  can  be  had  with  a  heavy 
engine  oil. 

In  all  cups  where  greases  are  to  be  used,  whether  light  cup 
greases  or  heavier  gear  greases  are  employed,  better  lubrication 
can  usually  be  had  by  using  the  softer  grades  of  grease. 

The  large  number  of  expensive  belts  of  large  size  render  careful 
attention  to  their  condition  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  de- 
terioration. By  using  comparatively  large  pulleys  and  oiling  with 
suitable  oils,  such  as  vegetable  castor  oil,  so  as  to  keep  the  belts 
pliable  and  cause  them  to  cling  to  the  pulleys  properly,  satisfactory 
service  can  be  had  for  30  to  50  years  or  even  longer. 

B.  COTTON  OIL  MILLS. 

For  all  rod  cups,  a  soft  semi-grease  is  used.  This  pasty  grease 
shows  a  big  saving  in  amount  of  lubricant  required  as  compared 
to  oil,  but  the  cost  of  the  grease  is  on  a  somewhat  higher  basis 
than  the  oil.  Although  the  bearings  run  warmer  than  with  oil, 
the  lubrication  seems  to  be  satisfactory.  This  grease  should  have 
a  sufficiently  low  melting  point  in  order  to  feed  freely  when 
needed.  On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  dust  and  lint  all 
cups  and  bearings  should  be  regularly  inspected  and  cleaned  to 
insure  proper  lubrication.  Cups  should  be  kept  covered. 

For  general  lubrication,  not  many  oils  are  necessary.  A  heavy 
red  engine  oil  of  220  to  270  viscosity  at  100°  F.  is  suitable  for 
general  lubrication  of  shafting,  delinters,  hullers,  crushers  and 
separators.  In  some  of  the  heavier  bearings,  as  on  the  crusher 
rolls,  a  heavy  mineral  castor  oil  would  doubtless'  give  good  re- 
sults over  either  engine  oil  or  grease  since  it  would  not  be  readily 
squeezed  out  of  the  roils.  The  bearings  on  the  crusher  are  often 
lubricated  solely  by  means  of  crude  cottonseed  oil. 

For  some  of  the  lighter  bearings,  as  for  conveyors,  etc.,  a 
medium  engine  oil  of  160  to  180  viscosity  is  used. 

Belts  should  be  kept  pliable  by  the  regular  use  of  limited 
amounts  of  vegetable  castor  oil  or  some  high-grade  belt  oil.  Ex- 


94  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

cessive  use  of  sticky  belt  preparations  would  catch  an  unnecessary 
amount  of  lint. 

For  engine  lubrication,  use  the  heavy  engine  oil  above  for  the 
moving  parts.  For  the  cylinders,  use  a  good  cylinder  oil  made 
from  a  steam  refined  cylinder  stock  and  6  to  8  per  cent,  of 
acidless  tallow  oil.  The  finished  oil  should  have  a  viscosity  of  105 
to  140  at  210°  F.,  the  lower  viscosity  oil  being  necessary  for  low- 
pressure  cylinders  where  force- feed  lubricators  are  not  available 
and  the  higher  viscosity  oil  being  required  for  high-pressure 
cylinders. 

For  electric-motor  lubrication  see  Index. 

Hydraulic  presses  may  be  lubricated  solely  by  means  of  crude 
cottonseed  oil,  by  means  of  graphite  or  by  the  use  of  soapy  water. 
The  presence  of  mineral  oil  aids  in  preventing  rusting  of  the 
valves.  Air  compressors  are  lubricated  with  a  light,  high-flash 
oil  (see  below). 

C.  ROLLING  MILLS. 

Hot  Neck  Rolls. — The  conditions  to  be  met  for  the  successful 
lubrication  of  the  large  bearings  or  necks  of  rolls  are  enormous 
pressures  suddenly  applied,  sudden  stoppage  and  sudden  reversal 
of  the  rolls,  and  very  high  temperatures  of  the  necks  due  to  the 
heating  of  the  rolls  by  contact  with  the  heated  metal  which  is 
being  rolled.  On  account  of  the  large  size  of  the  "necks"  the 
friction  speeds  are  very  high.  The  ends  of  the  rolls  are  usually 
housed  so  as  to  protect  them  from  dust,  etc. 

For  the  lubrication  of  these  rolls  a  heavy  grease  of  high  melting 
point  is  necessary.  The  most  generally  used  greases  are  made 
from  heavy  petroleum  residuum  either  alone  or  combined  with 
heavy  tar  or  heavy  pitches.  The  pitches  used  are  mineral  pitches, 
coal  tar  pitch,  stearin  pitch  and  wool  pitch.  The  heavy  tars  are 
coal  tar,  pine  tar,  etc.  The  heavy  petroleum  oils,  such  as  are 
present  in  good  residuum,  have  high  adhesive  properties.  The  ad- 
dition of  suitable  pitches  or  tar  increases  the  adhesive  properties 
of  the  grease.  This  is  very  necessary  on  account  of  the  high  tem- 
peratures and  the  high  pressures.  The  adhesive  properties  are 
greatly  reduced  by  the  presence  of  small  amounts  of  water  in 


LUBRICATION  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS  AND  MACHINES      95 

the  grease.  The  grease  must  maintain  a  high  viscosity  at  tem- 
peratures of  600°  or  700°  F.  without  vaporizing  or  decomposing 
readily. 

Hot  neck  greases  are  sometimes  thickened  with  rosin,  or  with 
solid  materials  like  talc,  lime,  mica  and  graphite.  All  of  these 
greases  must  be  melted  before  swabbing  on  the  rolls,  otherwise 
they  are  too  heavy  for  easy  application.  Sometimes  the  greases 
are  heated  in  a  bucket  and  then  dipped  out  and  poured  into  the 
housing  of  the  bearing.  Used  grease  can  be  melted  to  free  it  from 
grit  and  can  then  be  re-used. 

Soap  products,  particularly  products  high  in  soda  soaps,  such 
as  extra  heavy  gear  greases,  could  be  used  successfully  and  would 
doubtless  be  used  more  extensively  were  it  not  for  their  higher 
cost.  These  greases  should  also  be  free  from  any  water. 

Cold  Neck  Grease. — This  grease  is  used  on  the  neck  of  rolls 
which  are  kept  cool  by  running  water.  Firm  greases  containing 
soda  soaps  are  suitable,  but  light  tarry  compounds,  or  pinions 
greases,  are  more  often  used  on  account  of  the  lower  cost.  Some- 
times heavy  oils  are  used  combined  with  rosin,  tallow  or  waxes. 
These  make  greases  of  low  melting  point  compared  to  the  other 
greases.  Suitable  grades  of  residuum  can  be  used  without  the 
addition  of  other  substances. 

Roll  Gears. — The  driving  gears  of  rolls  can  be  lubricated  with 
a  medium  grade  of  light  cylinder  stock  (105  to  140  viscosity  at. 
210°  F.)  or  with  light  residuum.  The  more  usual  practice  is  to 
use  a  light  pinion  grease,  containing  tar  and  residuum,  or  a  dark 
gear  grease  or  "dope."  This  is  swabbed  on  the  open  gears,  and 
should  be  stringy  and  adherent  enough  to  cling  to  the  gears  with- 
out being  squeezed  off. 

Cylinder  Oils. — For  the  steam  engines,  unless  of  very  high 
pressure,  an  oil  of  105  to  135  viscosity  at  210°  F.  will  usually 
answer  all  purposes.  Such  an  oil  should  be  made  from  a  steam 
refined  cylinder  stock  free  from  tarry  matter  and  should  contain 
from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  tallow  oil  or  other  fixed  oil.  Not 
over  10  per  cent,  of  fixed  oil  is  required  unless  the  cylinders  work 
very  wet.  These  low  viscosity  oils  will  generally  lubricate  the 


96  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

yard  locomotives  satisfactorily.  For  high-pressure  engines,  or 
engines  using  superheated  steam,  oils  of  140  to  180  viscosity  at 
210°  F.  should  be  used. 

Yard  Cars  and  Locomotives, — For  cylinder  oils,  see  above.  For 
the  locomotive  journals  and  pins,  a  solid  soap  product  containing 
heavy  oils  should  be  used.  Ordinary  grades  of  grease  will  not 
be  satisfactory  on  account  of  the  lack  of  resistance  to  the  pres- 
sure springs  under  the  journal  boxes.  Where  the  locomotives 
are  not  fitted  with  journal  boxes  for  grease  lubrication,  a  good 
cylinder  stock  of  140  to  180  viscosity  at  210°  F.  is  generally 
used. 

The  cars  used  in  the  plant  and  in  the  yard  are  usually  lubricated 
with  black  oil  or  car  oil.  This  oil  should  have  a  viscosity  of  over 
60  at  210°  F.  for  winter  use,  and  a  satisfactory  cold  test.  For 
summer  use,  the  oil  should  have  a  viscosity  of  75  to  90  at  210° 
F.,  and  should  be  free  from  excessive  amounts  of  tarry  deposit. 
The  packing  should  be  regularly  inspected  and  kept  in  place  so 
that  the  journal  is  actually  reached  by  the  oil.  Sometimes  a  thin 
black  grease  or  "dope"  is  used  to  lubricate  the  car  journals. 

General  Lubrication. — For  the  lighter,  faster  work  a  good 
light  cylinder  stock  of  100  to  125  viscosity  at  210°  F.  will  answer. 
If  a  cheaper  oil  is  required,  the  above  black  car  oil  can  be  used. 
Various  grades  of  thin  gear  greases  and  thin  pinion  greases  are 
also  available  for  this  work. 

For  general  engine  lubrication,  a  heavy  engine  oil  of  210  to 
270  viscosity  at  100°  F.  is  satisfactory. 

Compression  cups,  on  cranes,  etc.,  are  usually  lubricated  with 
a  medium,  No.  3,  cup  grease. 

Chain  and  cable  greases  often  contain  graphite,  mica  or  talc, 
combined  with  petroleum  oils  and  certain  solidifying  substances 
such  as  fats,  wax,  rosin,  pitch,  tar,  and  soaps. 

D.  MISCELLANEOUS. 

Air  Compressors. — On  account  of  the  great  increase  in  tempera- 
ture when  air  is  strongly  compressed,  it  is  usual  to  compress  in 
two  or  more  stages  with  intermediate  cooling.  If  no  radiation 
or  cooling  took  place,  air  taken  at  60°  F.  and  compressed  under 


LUBRICATION  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS  AND  MACHINES      97 

50  pounds  pressure  would  have  a  temperature  of  339°  F.  Sim- 
ilarly, under  100  pounds  pressure  the  temperature  would  be  485° 
F.  and  under  150  pounds  the  temperature  would  be  580°  F.  But 
as  cooling  always  occurs  the  real  temperatures  run  considerably 
lower. 

On  account  of  the  high  temperature,  carbonization  tends  to 
take  place  as  in  motor  oils,  therefore,  compressor  oils  should  be 
tested  for  tendency  to  carbonize,  or  for  sulphur  which  seems  to 
influence  the  amount  of  carbonization.  For  safety  the  oil  should 
have  a  flash  point  well  above  400°  F.  Only  straight  mineral  oil 
distillates  of  low  cold  test  and  high  gravity  (above  30°  Be.) 
should  be  used.  A  low  viscosity  oil  is  generally  preferred,  from 
1 60  to  200  for  average  pressures  and  200  to  250  for  high  pres- 
sures. A  simple  test  for  comparing  these  oils  is  the  amount  of 
darkening  or  deposit  (insoluble  in  gasoline)  formed  on  heating 
to  the  flash  point  for  several  hours.  There  should  not  be  much 
darkening  or  deposit.  (See  Heat  Test.) 

If  the  oil  is  too  thick  it  adheres  to  the  valves  where  it  car- 
bonizes from  the  dry  heat.  It  is  important  to  use  the  minimum 
amount  of  oil  and  to  use  clean  air.  Low  flash  oils  have  caused  a 
number  of  explosions,  so  the  oils  might  very  well  be  tested  for 
amount  of  loss  under  heat. 

Soapy  water  mixed  with  flake  graphite  is  said  to  give  good 
lubrication  without  causing  sticking  of  valves,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  feed  oil  just  before  shutting  down  in  order  to  avoid  rusting. 

For  air-cooled  compressors,  as  on  street  cars  and  locomotives 
the  temperatures  get  very  high  (up  to  450°  F.  for  street  cars 
and  550°  F.  for  electric  locomotives  according  to  Conradson). 
For  such  compressors  it  is  necessary  to  use  cylinder  stocks,  or 
cylinder  oils. 

Compressed  Air  Machinery. — Pneumatic  tools  such  as  drills, 
etc.,  operated  by  compressed  air  require  oils  of  very  low  cold  test 
on  account  of  the  drop  in  temperature  of  the  expanding  air.  The 
cold  test  should  be  below  10°  F.,  the  gravity  above  30°  Be.,  and 
the  viscosity  should  be  low  as  determined  at  100°  F. 

Mine  and  Quarry  Machinery. — For  the  journals  of  cars,  summer 
black  oil  of  85  viscosity  at  210°  F.,  or  winter  black  oil  of  65 


98  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

viscosity  at  210°  F.  are  generally  used.  The  journals  should  be 
kept  properly  packed,  should  be  inspected  and  cleaned  regularly 
and  should  be  protected  from  all  gritty  material  as  much  •  as 
possible.  Cheap,  thin  greases,  called  "black  dope,"  are  used  to 
some  extent  for  car  journals. 

For  the  lubrication  of  air  compressors,  electric  motors,  steam 
cylinders  and  small  locomotives,  see  Index.  Pneumatic  drills 
and  other  similar  tools  can  be  lubricated  with  a  high-grade  engine 
oil  of  180  to  260  viscosity  at  100°  F.  The  oil  should  have  a  low 
cold  test  and  the  wearing  parts  should  be  kept  clean  and  free 
from  grit. 

Hoisting  ropes  (metal)  are  lubricated  with  coal  tar  containing 
up  to  20  per  cent,  of  lime  to  neutralize  the  tar  acids.  A  mixture 
of  tar  and  engine  oil  is  used,  alone  or  mixed  with  graphite,  mica 
or  talc.  The  tar  aids  in  the  exclusion  of  water  and  so  prevents 
corrosion  of  the  metal.  Solid  fats  and  waxes  are  also  used  with 
oils  for  the  same  purpose. 

Ice  Machinery. — For  the  ammonia  compressors,  the  oil  should 
have  a  low  cold  test  (o°F.)  and  a  flash  of  at  least  375°  F.  A 
western  oil  is  suitable  on  account  of  having  a  natural  low  cold 
test  while  the  Pennsylvania  oils  require  special  treatment  to  get 
a  satisfactory  cold  test.  The  loss  on  the  evaporation  test  should 
be  low  as  the  carrying  over  of  oil  by  the  ammonia  will  reduce 
the  rate  of  refrigeration.  A  high-grade  spindle  oil  of  50  to  90 
viscosity  at  100°  F.  will  give  good  results  if  it  also  satisfies 
the  above  condition.  The  gravity  of  western  oils  may  be  as  low 
as  27°  Be. 

For  lubricating  the  steam  cylinders,  a  high-grade  steam  refined 
cylinder  stock  should  be  used,  either  alone  or  compounded  with 
not  more  than  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  acidless  tallow  oil.  A 
practically  pure  mineral  oil  is  necessary  in  order  to  separate  the 
condensed  steam  from  the  oil  in  condition  for  use  in  ice  making. 
The  emulsion  of  oil  and  water  does  not  "break"  so  readily'  in 
the  presence  of  the  fatty  oil.  The  minimum  amount  of  oil  should 
be  fed  to  the  steam  cylinder  and  to  the  ammonia  compressor. 

Printing  Presses. — For  small  and  medium  presses  a  medium  to 
heavy  red' engine  oil  of  220  to  270  viscosity  is  suitable. 


LUBRICATION  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS  AND  MACHINES      99 

For  heavy  presses,  used  for  newspaper  work,  a  heavy  engine 
oil  of  300  viscosity  at  100°  F.  is  usually  heavy  enough  for  use 
on  the  cylinders.  Where  a  heavier  oil  is  needed  a  good  cylinder 
stock  of  105  to  125  viscosity  at  210°  F.  may  be  used  satisfactorily, 
but  where  there  is  any  tendency  to  come  into  contact  with  the 
paper,  filtered  stocks  are  preferable  to  steam  refined  stocks.  For 
the  gears  a  light  gear  grease  can  b'e  used.  For  lubricating  electric 
motors,  see  Index.  \y  £ 

Cutting  Tools. — The  office  of  cutting  oil  is  to  cool  the  cutting 
tool  and  at  the  same  time  lubricate  the  face  of  the  tool.  The 
pressure  on  the  cutting  edge  is  great  and  no  lubrication  is  pos- 
sible or  desired  at  this  point. 

Mineral  oils,  such  as  kerosene  oil  or  paraffin  oils,  can  be  used 
as  cutting  oils.  They  are  more  often  compounded  with  20  to  25 
per  cent,  of  fixed  oil,  such  as  lard  oil  or  cottonseed  oil,  or  even 
corn  oil.  Kerosene  seems  to  work  well  on  cast  iron,  but  the 
presence  of  lard  oil  or  some  similar  oil  seems  to  make  a  cleaner, 
smoother  and  faster  cut  on  steel  and  copper.  The  paraffin  oil  can 
be  compounded  with  other  fixed  oils  with  similar  results. 

Emulsions  of  water,  soap  and  mineral  oils,  with  or  without 
soda,  are  also  used  for  cutting  purposes.  These  so-called  soluble 
oils  are  made  by  combining  soluble  soaps  with  light  mineral  oils, 
such  as  paraffin  oils.  The  soaps  may  be  made  from  fats,  rosin,  etc. 
The  product  emulsifies  permanently,  if  properly  made,  when 
brought  into  contact  with  water.  The  emulsion  is  also  made  by 
dissolving  a  suitable  soft  soap  in  water  and  then  stirring  in  a 
mixture  of  lard  oil  and  paraffin  oil.  The  presence  of  the  oils  and 
soap  tends  to  reduce  the  amount  of  rusting  which  might  be  caused 
by  the  water.  These  water  soluble  oils  are  better  cooling  agents 
than  the  pure  oil  products  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  heat 
absorbing  capacity  of  water  is  about  twice  as  great  as  that  of  oils. 

Special  merit  is  claimed  for  the  suspension  of  graphite  in  water 
known  as  "aquadag/ 

Where  a  purification  system  is  used  and  the  oils  are  available 
for  re-use,  the  more  expensive  cutting  oils  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. 

For  cutting  oil  specifications  see  Index. 

8 
X 


CHAPTER  XII. 


PHYSICAL  METHODS  OF  TESTING  LUBRICATING  OILS, 

From  the  large  number  of  tests  and  methods  available  an  ef- 
fort has  been  made  to  give  tests  which  meet  present  day  re- 
quirements. 

It  might  be  well  to  state  that  no  standard  methods  of  proced- 
ure have  been  generally  adopted.  The  nearest  approach  to  stand- 
ard methods  is  in  the  case  of  methods  proposed  for  viscosity, 
specific  gravity,  free  acid,  and  cloud  and  pour  tests  (cold 
test),  recommended  by  a  Committee  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials  (Proceedings,  1915),  but  these  tests  have  not 
yet  been  officially  adopted  by  the  Society.  A  few  methods  have 
been  proposed  by  the  International  Petroleum  Commission. 

A  statement  of  the  meaning  or  value  of  each  test  is  usually 
given  as  an  aid  to  its  use  and  in  interpreting  the  results  obtained. 

VISCOSITY. 

By  viscosity  is  meant  the  internal  friction  or  "body"  of  an  oil. 
In  commercial  instruments,  the  viscosity  is  determined  by  the 
rate  of  flow  of  the  oil  through  a  small  tube,  but  the  figures 
obtained  are  not  in  exact  proportion  to  the  true  viscosity  par- 
ticularly for  thin  oils.  Viscosity  in  true  liquids  is  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  fluidity. 

The  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  the  most  important  property  of  the 
oil  from  a  lubrication  standpoint.  The  relation  of  viscosity  to 
friction  and  lubrication  is  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 
The  coefficient  of  friction  has  been  shown  to  be  proportional  to 
the  true  (absolute)  viscosity  of  oils  at  the  temperature  of  use. 
The  real  importance  of  the  viscosity  determination  has  been  ob- 
scured by  the  fact  that  determinations  have  been  made  at  tem- 
peratures which  did  not  represent  the  working  temperatures,  and 
by  the  fact  that  the  viscosities  as  read  by  commercial  viscosimeters 
do  not  show  the  true  viscosity  or  even  the  exact  relative  viscosity, 
particularly  for  oils  of  less  than  200  Saybolt  viscosity.  Thus,  the 
real  viscosity  of  an  oil  of  100  Saybolt  is  considerably  less  than 
half  the  viscosity  of  another  oil  reading  200  Saybolt.  This  be- 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS          IOI 

comes  of  greater  importance  when  it  is  recalled  that  the  viscosity 
as  read  decreases  rapidly  with  rise  of  temperature  and  the  true 
viscosity  decreases  more  rapidly  still  than  is  indicated  by  the  read- 
ing; also  the  temperature  of  the  oil  film  actually  doing  the  lubri- 
cating is  higher  than  the  temperature  shown  by  any  part  of  the 
bearing. 

The  commercial  methods  of  taking  viscosity  are  based  on  the 
time  required  for  a  given  volume  of  the  oil  to  flow  through  a 
certain  size  opening  or  tube  under  specified  conditions.  In  order 
to  make  a  single  instrument  answer  for  all  types  of  oils,  the 
opening  is  made  too  large,  or  the  tube  too  short,  for  thin  oils  to 
register  their  true  relative  viscosities  as  compared  to  the  thicker 
oils.  The  recognition  of  this  fact  will  greatly  extend  the  useful- 
ness of  the  viscosity  test.  The  Bureau  of  Standards  has  under- 
taken the  problem  of  determining  the  absolute  (true)  viscosities 
for  the  Saybolt  and  Engler  viscosimeters  which  should  put  the 
interpretation  of  viscosities  on  a  sound  scientific  basis.  The  Uni- 
versal Saybolt  viscosimeter  has  not  yet  been  fully  standardized 
as  to  the  exact  dimensions  of  the  outflow  tube,  so  that  the  read- 
ings with  different  instruments  vary  more  than  do  the  readings 
with  different  Engler  viscosimeters  which  have  been  fully  stand- 
ardized in  all  particulars.  Ubbelohde  has  published  tables  for 
conversion  of  Engler  viscosities  into  absolute  viscosities. 

The  Saybolt  universal  viscosimeter,  which  is  the  only  type  of 
Saybolt  viscosimeter  now  used,  requires  only  a  small  amount  of 
oil  for  the  determination.  The  time  of  outflow  of  60  cc.  of  oil 
expressed  in  seconds  is  taken  as  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  at  the 
temperature  used.  This  viscosimeter  requires  about  28  seconds 
for  60  cc.  of  water  to  flow  out  at  68°  F.  (20°  C.). 

The  Engler  viscosimeter,  used  in  Continental  Europe  and 
largely  by  the  United  States  Government,  requires  practically  51 
seconds  (50  to  52  seconds)  for  200  cc.  of  water  to  flow  out  at 
20°  C.  (68°  F.)  when  240  cc.  of  water  is  used  in  the  instrument. 
The  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  taken  by  using  240  cc.  of  the  oil  in  the 
viscosimeter,  adjusting  the  temperature  to  the  desired  point  by 
means  of  the  water  bath  which  is  part  of  the  instrument,  and 


102 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


noting  the  number  of  seconds  required  for  200  cc.  of  the  oil  to 
flow  out.  The  Engler  viscosity  or  Engler  number  for  the  ob- 
served temperature  is  calculated  by  dividing  the  time  of  outflow 
of  the  oil  (in  seconds)  by  the  time  of  outflow  of  water  at  68°  F. 
(in  seconds). 


Saybolt  Universal  Viscosimeter. 

(Sectional  View.) 
(By  courtesy  of  Platt  &  Washburn  Refining  Co.,  New  York.) 

To  determine  the  viscosity  of  an  oil:  The  water-bath  (/4)  is  kept  at  the  tempera- 
ture  at  which  the  viscosity  is  to  be  determined.  The  well-cleaned  cylinder  (B)  is 
filled  with  the  strained  oil  until  it  overflows  into  CV  When  the  oil  reaches  the  desired 
temperature  (usually  100°,  130°,  or  210°  F.)  the  thermometer  is  removed  from  B,  the 
excess  oil  pipetted  from  C,  and  the  stopper  (D)  removed.  The  exact  time  in  seconds 
noted  for  60  cc.  of  the  oil  to  flow  into  G  is  the  Saybolt  viscosity  of  the  oil  at  the 
temperature  used.  A  stop-watch  should  be  used. 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS 


103 


Tables  are  given  showing  the  relation  of  Engler  viscosity  and 
Saybolt  viscosity  (page  218),  but  the  relations  hold  only  for  the 
instruments  used  in  making  the  comparisons  as  the  Saybolt  di- 
mensions have  not  been  fully  determined  as  previously  stated. 

The  Engler  viscosimeter  requires  a  large  amount  of  oil  for  a 
complete  determination,  but  where  only  a  small  amount  of  oil  is 
available,  or  it  is  desired  to  shorten  the  time,  the  time  of  outflow 
of  a  smaller  amount  of  oil  may  be  taken  in  seconds,  using  a 
smaller  amount  of  oil  in  the  viscosimeter.  The  factors  given  be- 
low are  used  to  multiply  the  seconds  noted  to  find  the  time  of  out- 
flow of  200  cc.  if  240  cc.  of  oil  had  been  used  in  the  instrument. 
The  errors  are  somewhat  larger  than  for  a  regular  determination. 
(See  Ch.  A.,  p.  304,  1912,  Offerman,  also  Holde  and  Cans.) 


Amount  of  oil  used 
cc. 

Amount  run  out 
cc. 

Multiplying  factor 

25 

10 

13- 

45 

20 

7-25 

45 

25 

5-55 

50 
50 
60 
1  20 

20 
40 

50 
IOO 

7-3 
3-62 
2.79 
1.65 

240 

100 

2-35 

The  Dudley,  or  Pennsylvania  Railroad  pipette,  is  sometimes 
used  to  get  comparative  viscosities  of  oils  where  a  standard  vis- 
cosimeter is  not  available.  An  exact  standardization  of  such  an 
instrument  is  impossible,  so  the  results  are  valuable  only  for  the 
direct  comparison  of  oils  at  room  temperatures. 

The  old  practice  of  taking  viscosities  at  70°  F.  is  indefensible 
as  oils  are  practically  never  used  at  that  temperature.  So  long  as 
Pennsylvania  oils  only  were  used  the  results  at  70°  F.  were 
roughly  proportional  for  oils  of  the  same  class  at  100°  F.  or 
higher.  Lubricating  oils  from  other  sources  may  show  greater 
viscosities  at  70°  F.  than  Pennsylvania  oils  and  less  viscosity  at 
100°  F.  or  at  working  temperatures,  owing  to  more  rapid  thinning 


104 


AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 


>>  J: 

t/3     0) 

C    ft 

!5 
*•» 


& 

5 


o  «  $  • 

8||| 

:YI.?f 

s  H  £    i 

o  "a  r<  "2  « 


•H  .2 


:  t 
il 


5 

c  55 


!  lilial 

S    ll.a^l« 


II 

cc   a 


d?5    S         C 

^  « -5  ° 

"S  S  -s  c 
E  bcr  7 

»lj| 

3^  !3   o>   n 

-*-1       Q     .S       ^ 

O     t/3     y   T3 

gisg 

*—  4;  3  c 

111 

8    be  u 

.2   *  O 

^.2 
!5>S 

S    TJ      «! 

>   c  s 
|   «-S 

4  a  a 


=  B 

! 

%l 

:,i 
•°-& 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS          IO5 

under  heat.  After  this  preliminary  thinning,  the  viscosities  do  not 
vary  so  differently  upon  further  heating.  The  determination  of 
viscosity  at  100°  F.  has  now  become  general  in  this  country,  ex- 
cept for  car  oils  which  are  tested  at  210°  F.  and  sometimes  at 
130°  F.,  and  for  cylinder  oils  and  stocks  which  are  tested  at  210° 
F.  The  Government,  following  foreign  practice,  sometimes  takes 
the  viscosity  of  engine  oils  at  50°  C.  (122°  F.)  which  seems  to  be 
good  practice  as  this  is  near  the  possible  working  temperature  of 
the  oil. 

The  practice  of  taking  the  viscosity  of  engine  oils  and  heavy 
motor  oils  at  130°  F.  should  be  encouraged,  since  a  better  basis 
for  comparison  of  the  true  working  viscosities  of  different  types 
of  heavy  oil  can  be  obtained  at  this  temperature  than  at  100°  F. 

The  practice  of  taking  the  viscosity  of  cylinder  oils,  as  is  fre- 
quently advocated,  at  temperatures  above  212°  F.  is  of  no  value 
for  routine  testing  or  for  specifications  as  the  viscosity  at  higher 
temperatures  can  be  correctly  inferred  from  the  viscosity  at  210° 
F. 

The  presence  of  soaps  and  other  oil  thickeners  dissolved  in  an 
oil  interfere  with  a  correct  determination  of  the  viscosity.  Such 
thickeners  must  first  be  removed,  or  the  viscosity  determined  at 
a  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  render  their  effect  of  minor  im- 
portance, otherwise  the  viscosity  reading  will  be  misleading. 
Such  oils  give  a  "fictitious"  viscosity  reading. 

For  change  of  viscosity  with  change  of  temperature,  see 
analyses  under  spindle  oils,  loom  oils  and  cylinder  oils. 

Absolute  Viscosities. — In  commercial  viscosimeters  arbitrary 
scales  have  been  adopted  which  do  not  give  proportional  viscosi- 
ties for  different  oils  even  with  the  same  instrument.  This  is 
because  the  outflow  tube  is  too  large  and  too  short  to  register 
the  whole  energy  of  outflow,  particularly  for  the  thin  oils.  Abso- 
lute viscosities  are  expressed  in  "dynes  per  square  centimeter" 
and  the  specific  gravities  of  the  oils  are  taken  into  account  as  a 
heavier  oil  will  give  a  slightly  shorter  outflow  time  than  a  lighter 
oil  of  the  same  absolute  viscosity.  Corrections  are  also  made  for 


IO6  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

the  energy  of  flow  not  used  in  overcoming  resistance  within  the 
outflow  tube.  The  units  used  are  not  familiar  to  the  oil  trade, 
but  will  doubtless  become  so  as  soon  as  definite  figures  are  pub- 
lished for  the  Saybolt  viscosimeter.  (See  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Test. 
Mat.,  1915,  for  the  work  of  Dr.  Waidner  of  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards ;  also  P.  C.  Mcllhiny,  /.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  8,  p.  434,  1916 
for  tables  and  discussion  of  new  units.) 

It  might  be  of  interest  and  of  value  to  compare  briefly  the  Say- 
bolt  readings  in  terms  of  relative  Saybolt  viscosities  with  an  oil 
of  200  Saybolt  viscosity. 


True  relative  viscosity  as 

Usual  Saybolt  reading 

compared  to  an  oil  of  200 
Saybolt  viscosity 

400 

405 

2OO 

200 

IOO 

94 

76 

67 

50 

36 

40 

23 

The  results  are  only  approximately  accurate  as  the  effect  of 
different  gravities  has  not  been  considered  and  the  published  data 
is  not  exact,  but  they  serve  to  show  in  a  measure  how  the  real 
viscosity  varies  more  rapidly  for  low  viscosity  oils  than  revealed 
by  the  Saybolt  readings.  Thus  an  oil  of  50  Saybolt  viscosity,  in- 
stead of  having  50  per  cent.  (50/100)  of  the  viscosity  of  an  oil 
of  100  Saybolt  viscosity,  as  might  be  expected,  has  a  viscosity  of 
39  per  cent.  (36/94)  of  that  of  the  100  viscosity  oil  which  is 
only  78  per  cent,  of  the  expected  viscosity.  This  serves  to  in- 
dicate the  need  for  a  more  rational  expression  of  viscosity  meas- 
urements or  a  more  rational  basis  for  interpreting  viscosity. 

Standardization  of  Viscosimeters. — For  "Standard  Substances 
for  the  Calibration  of  Viscosimeters,"  see  Scientific  Paper  No. 
298  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  This  paper,  by  Bingham  and 
Jackson,  gives  exact  data  for  the  use  of  sugar  solutions  and 
alcohol-water  mixtures.  A  mixture  of  45  per  cent,  by  volume 
of  ethyl  alcohol  and  water  has  a  viscosity  which  is  almost  exactly 
four  times  that  of  water  at  o°  C.  Since  the  viscosity  of  ethyl 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS          IO7 

alcohol-water  mixtures  passes  through  a  maximum  at  this  con- 
centration, the  viscosity  does  not  change  rapidly  with  the  concen- 
tration, which  is  a  marked  advantage.  The  absolute  viscosity  of 
water  at  20°  C.  (68°  F.)  is  given  as  1.005  centipoise. 

MECHANICAL  TESTS. 

The  usual  oil  testing  machines  give  little  information  of  value 
to  the  user  of  oils.  The  conditions  of  use  on  testing  machines  do 
not  duplicate  the  actual  service  conditions,  so  the  tests  are  chiefly 
valuable  as  tests  of  the  working  conditions  used,  or  as  a  test  of 
the  general  principles  of  lubrication  involved,  rather  than  a  test 
of  the  suitability  of  the  oil  foi*  a  definite  purpose. 

Much  has  been  learned  about  the  science  of  lubrication  by  the 
use  of  testing  machines,  such  as  the  coefficient  of  friction  to  con- 
sider as  a  working  ideal  for  given  pressures  and  speeds.  Ub- 
belohde  (Petrol.  7,  p.  773,  882  and  938,  1912;  see  Chem.  Ab.,  p. 
1986,  and  2521,  1912,  also  p.  248,  1121,  and  2678,  1913)  has  shown 
by  experiment  that  the  coefficient  of  friction  of  an  oil  can  be 
calculated  from  the  absolute  viscosity  of  the  oil  (Holde,  Eng.  Ed., 
p.  125).  The  Saybolt  and  Engler  viscosities  are  not  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  true  or  absolute  viscosity  of  the  oil,  and  this  fact 
together  with  the  practice  of  taking  the  viscosities  of  oils  at  un- 
suitable temperatures  has  tended  to  obscure  the  important  rela- 
tion between  viscosity  and  the  coefficient  of  friction. 

High  viscosity  oils  have  high  coefficients  of  friction  and  so  the 
best  oil  to  use  in  practice  is  an  oil  of  just  sufficient  viscosity  at 
the  working  temperature  to  keep  the  bearings  apart  with  cer- 
tainty under  all  conditions.  The  viscosity  test,  in  conjunction 
with  the  available  information  on  lubricating  principles,  is  a  suf- 
ficient guide  to  successful  lubrication.  Actual  service  tests  can  be 
used  to  confirm  the  accuracy  of  the  conclusions  from  the  viscosity 
determination. 

Thurston  and  others  have  studied  the  principles  underlying 
lubrication,  and  in  this  way  the  use  of  testing  machines  have 
proved  of  great  service. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PHYSICAL  METHODS  OF  TESTING  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

(Continued.) 

A.  GRAVITY  TESTS. 

The  gravity  test  has  been  accorded  too  much  weight  in  judging 
the  lubricating  value  of  oils,  consequently  oils  have  often  been 
found  unsuitable  because  some  more  vital  test,  such  as  viscosity, 
has  been  sacrificed  to  meet  an  impracticable  gravity  requirement. 
It  has  great  value  in  the  refinery  as  a  quick  method  of  judging 
when  to  make  the  "cuts"  or  changes  in  distillation.  So  long  as 
Pennsylvania  crude  was  the  only  oil  used,  the  gravity  was  an 
index  to  the  viscosity  and  was,  therefore,  of  real  value  to  the 
user.  With  the  production  of  lubricating  oils  from  other  crudes, 
the  gravity  test  has  lost  much  of  its  value  unless  taken  in  con- 
junction with  other  tests.  The  gravity  is  of  value  in  judging 
the  type  of  crude  from  which  the  oil  was  refined.  Thus  high 
viscosity  oils  (viscous  neutrals)  do  not  run  over  30°  Be.  unless 
from  Pennsylvania  or  similar  crude.  For  a  given  crude  the  vis- 
cosity is  generally  proportional  to  the  gravity,  but  this  is  not 
necessarily  true  for  oils  of  the  same  type  from  different  crudes. 
All  mineral  oils  contain  about  85  per  cent,  actual  carbon,  so  a 
possible  variation  of  I  or  2  per  cent,  in  the  carbon  content  of  an 
oil  as  evidenced  by  a  lower  gravity  can  hardly  be  of  any  prac- 
tical significance. 

It  has  long  been  a  trade  custom  to  use  the  Baume  gravity 
(°  Be.)  instead  of  the  specific  gravity.  The  simplest  way  to  take 
the  gravity  is  with  a  hydrometer  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  Hydrometers  are  made  which  read  either  Baume 
gravity  (degrees  Baume),  or  specific  gravity,  or  both.  Hydrom- 
eters can  also  be  had  in  sets  so  that  more  exact  readings  can  be 
made  than  where  the  whole  scale  is  on  a  single  spindle.  Since 
the  gravity  must  be  taken  at  60°  F.,  or  be  corrected  to  60°  F., 
hydrometers  may  be  equipped  with  thermometers.  Sufficient  time 
should  be  allowed  for  the  thermometer  to  register  the  true  tem- 
perature of  the  oil.  For  most  lubricating  oils  the  correction  for 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS          ICX) 


i"  I 


Showing  Correct  Method  of  Reading  Hydrometer. 
(From  Bureau  of  Standards  Circular  No.  57.) 

In  taking  the  reading  the  eye  should  be  placed  slightly  below  the  plane  of  the  surface  of 

the  oil  and  then  raised  slowly  until  this  surface  becomes  a  straight  line.    The 

point  at  which  this  line  cuts  the  hydrometer  scale  is  taken  as  the  reading 

of  the  instrument.    With  an  oil  not  sufficiently  clear  to  allow  a 

reading  as  described,  the  reading  can  be  made  above  the 

oil  surface  and  a  suitable  correction  made. 


no  AMERICAN  IAJBRJCANTS 

temperature  is  approximately  0.06°  Be.  for  each  degree  Fahren- 
heit above  or  below  60°  F.,  the  correction  to  be  subtracted  when 
the  reading  is  made  above  60°  F.  Tables  are  given  (page  220) 
for  correcting  the  gravity  where  the  observation  is  not  made  at 
60°  F.  (or  see  Bureau  of  Standards  Circ.  No.  57). 

For  exact  determinations  of  gravity,  the  Westphal  specific 
gravity  balance,  or  a  pycnometer  (specific  gravity  bottle)  may  be 
used.  The  pycnometer  should  be  standardized  with  distilled 
water  at  60°  F.  (15.6°  C.).  The  specific  gravity  correction  is 
about  0.00036  for  each  degree  Fahrenheit  above  or  below  60°  F. 
(equivalent  to  0.00065  correction  for  i°  C.),  the  correction  to  be 
added  for  temperatures  above  60°  F.  The  correction  is  slightly 
higher  for  lubricating  oils  of  low  specific  gravity.  Tables  are 
given  for  converting  specific  gravity  into  degrees  Baume,  etc. 

The  Baume  scale  is  unscientific  in  that  it  was  arbitrarily  chosen 
and  bears  no  obvious  relation  to  the  weight  as  does  the  specific 
gravity.  There  are  a  number  of  Baume  scales  for  liquids  lighter 
than  water,  but  the  Bureau  of  Standards  has  sanctioned  the  scale 
based  on  the  following  formula : 

Sp.  gr.  6o°/6o°  =  —     i1*0      ^-r 
130  -f  deg.  Be. 

The  specific  gravity  shows  the  weight  of  an  oil  as  compared 
to  water  as  unity  at  60°  F.  Since  I  gallon  of  water  at  60°  F. 
weighs  8.32823  pounds,  the  weight  of  I  gallon  of  oil  can  be  cal- 
culated by  multiplying  this  value  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
oil  at  60°  F.  Heavy  oils  have  low  Baume  gravities,  but  high 
specific  gravities. 

B.  FLASH  TEST. 

The  flash  point  of  an  oil  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  the 
oil  gives  off  sufficient  vapors  to  form  an  inflammable  mixture  with 
air.  The  flash  point  varies  with  the  conditions  of  testing  and 
with  the  apparatus  used. 

The  flash  point  does  not  indicate  the  value  of  an  oil  for  lub- 
ricating purposes,  except  in  a  very  general  way.  Thus  very  high 
flash  oils,  such  as  cylinder  oils,  must  usually  have  a  high  vis- 
cosity, and  light  oils  such  as  spindle  oils  cannot  have  as  high 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS          III 

flash  points  as  engine  oils  have.  Also  oil  made  from  western 
crude  may  show  a  lower  flash  point  than  the  same  class  of  oil 
from  Pennsylvania  crude. 

The  chief  value  of  the  flash  test  is  to  determine  the  safety  of  j 
an  oil  with  respect  to  the  fire  risk  and  as  an  indication  of.  the 
freedom  of  the  oil  from  excessive  evaporation  loss  during  use. 
The  fire  hazard  of  lubricating  oils  is  of  importance  where  the 
oils  are  for  use  on  fast-moving  machinery,  such  as  spindles,  or 
for  use  in  compressors  for  air,  ammonia  and  other  gases.  The 
flash  test  is  of  special  importance  in  connection  with  motor  oils 
and  other  oils  exposed  to  high  temperatures.  For  oils  not  ex- 
posed to  high  temperatures,  the  flash  point  is  usually  sufficiently 
high,  except  for  very  low  viscosity  oils  like  spindle  oils. 

While  many  testers  have  been  used  in  the  United  States,  the 
best  known  testers  for  lubricating  oils  are  the  Cleveland  open-] 
cup  tester,  the  Tagliabue  open-cup  tester,  and  the  Pensky-Mar-j 
tens  (closed-cup)  tester.     The  flash  point  with  the  open  testers 
may  be  as  much  as  40°  F.  higher  than  with  the  closed  testers, 
such  as  the  Pensky-Martens.     The  open  tester  has  been  used  in 
the  United  States  to  the  exclusion  of  other  testers. 

Similar  results  to  those  with  the  Cleveland  open-cup,  tester 
are  obtained  by  heating  the  oil  in  a  porcelain  crucible  or  evapo- 
rating dish,  or  in  a  glass  beaker,  or  a  sand  bath  (see  illustration).  / 
A  50  cc.  crucible  or  dish  is  suitable  for  the  oil  vessel,  the  oil , 
being  filled  to  within  ^4  inch  of  the  top  only.  The  thermometer 
is  adjusted  so  that  the  bulb  is  completely  covered  but  does  not 
touch  the  bottom  of  the  dish.  The  apparatus  should  be  pro-i 
tected  from  air  currents  and  from  the  breath  of  the  operator., 
The  heating  flame  is  adjusted  so  that  the  temperature  rises 
at  the  rate  of  10°  to  12°  F.  per  minute,  and  a  small  test  flame 
is  applied  every  7°  F.,  beginning  at  least  50°  below  the  supposed 
flashing  point  of  the  oil.  The  test  flame  can  be  a  small  lighted 
splinter,  or  preferably  a  gas  flame  burning  on  a  pointed  glass 
tube,  but  should  not  be  more  than  J^  inch  long  in  any  case.  The 
flame  is  applied  by  passing  it  slowly  entirely  across  the  dish, 
about  y2  inch  above  the  level  of  the  oil  and  just  in  front  of  the 
thermometer.  The  flash  point  is  the  temperature  read  at  the 


112 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


moment  the  vapor  ignites  with  a  slight  flash.  The  heating  may 
be  continued,  applying  the  flame  as  before,  until  the  oil  vapor 
continues  to  burn  after  the  test  flame  is  removed.  The  tempera- 
ture observed  is  called  the  burning  point  or  the  fire  test. 


Apparatus  for  Determining  the  Flashing  and  Burning  Points  of  Combustible 

lyiquids  as  used  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
The  porcelain  dish  is  2^  inches  in  diameter  and  i  inch  deep. 

The  rate  of  heating  and  the  method  of  applying  the  flame  are 
very  important.  The  results  are  sufficiently  exact  for  commer- 
cial purposes. 


PHYSICAL,    METHODS   OF   TESTING    LUBRICATING   OILS 


Modified  Pensky-Martens  Tester,  Ready  for  Test. 
(From  Tech.  Paper  49,  Bureau  of  Mines.) 

This  flash  tester  has  been  adopted  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  and  the 

Independent   Petroleum  Marketers'  Association  of  the  United   States  and  will 

doubtless  be  adopted  by  other  similar  organizations.     This  tester  without 

the  modified  bath,  is  the  official  standard  for  testing  lubricating 

oils  in  most  European  countries.    This  is  the  most  accurate 

form  of  tester. 

Thermometers  are  usually  standardized  with  the  bulb  and  stem 
at  the  same  temperature,  so  a  correction  should  be  applied  to 
the  thermometer  reading  as  found  above.  The  following  correc- 
tions are  to  be  added  to  the  thermometer  reading  to  get  the  true 
flash  point  and  are  sufficiently  exact  for  most  purposes: 


114  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


Flash-point  reading  (°F.) 

Correction  to  be  added  (°F.) 

275-300 

5 

300-325 

6 

325-350 

7 

350-375 

8 

375-400 

10 

400-425 

IT 

425-450 

J3 

450-500 

16 

500-550 

20 

550-600 

23 

600-650 

27 

650-700 

30 

The  effect  of  various  factors  on  the  flash  point  as  determined 
with  the  closed  cup  testers  is  discussed  fully  in  Tech.  Paper  No. 
49  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  (37-pp.  with  bibliography,  1914)  and 
in  a  paper  by  the  same  authors,  Allen  and  Crossfield,  /.  Ind.  & 
Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  908-910,  1913.  See  Index  for  railroad  methods 
of  testing  given  in  this  volume. 

C.  FIRE  TEST. 

The  fire  test  or  burning  point  of  an  oil  is  the  lowest  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  oil  gives  off  sufficient  vapor  to  continue  to  burn 
after  the  vapor  is  ignited.  The  method  of  making  the  fire  test 
has  been  given  above. 

Oils,  particularly  steam  cylinder  oils,  have  been  largely  sold 
by  their  fire  test,  which  is  from  40°  to  50°  F.  above  the  flash 
test  for  motor  oils  or  engine  oils,  and 'from  60°  to  80°  F.  above 
the  flash  test  for  cylinder  oils.  The  fire  test  has  the  same  general 
significance  as  the  flash  test  and  gives  little  additional  information. 

D.  VAPORIZATION  TEST. 

The  amount  of  oil  that  will  vaporize  at  any  given  temperature 
is  somewhat  proportional  to  the  flash  and  fire  tests  of  the  oil.  A 
low  flash  oil  will  lose  weight  faster  than  a  high  flash  oil. 

The  vaporization  test  gives  more  definite  information  as  to  the 
extent  of  the  loss  by  vaporization  under  definite  conditions  than 
can  be  inferred  from  the  flash  and  fire  tests.  This  is  especially 
true  where  the  oil  tends  to  decompose  under  the  influence  of 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   RUBRICATING   OILS          115 

heat.  The  usual  procedure  is  to  use  temperatures  of  212°  F.  or 
higher,  up  to  the  flash  point  of  the  oil,  for  a  period  of  not  more 
than  6  hours,  the  temperatures  used  and  the  time  of  heating 
being  chosen  with  reference  to  the  type  of  oil  and  the  conditions 
under  which  the  oil  is  to  be  used.  Generally  an  air  bath  is  used 
for  the  heating,  though  the  heating  may  be  conducted  on  a  water 
bath  for  the  loss  at  212°  F.,  or  on  an  electric  hot  plate  for  losses 
at  higher  temperatures.  Comparative  results  can  be  had  by  using 
the  same  type  of  dish  and  the  same  conditions  for  a  series 
of  tests.  The  form  of  the  dish,  the  depth  of  oil  in  the  dish  and 
the  amount  of  oil  surface  exposed  greatly  influence  the  result  as 
does  also  circulation  of  the  air  to  remove  the  vapor  formed. 
Waters  (/.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  394-398,  1913)  recommends 
brass  vessels  0.5  millimeter  thick,  5  centimeters  internal  diameter 
and  3  centimeters  high,  and  5  grams  of  the  oil. 

This  test  is  of  value  in  determining  what  flash  test  to  specify, 
as  for  spindle  oils  or  motor  oils,  and  for  testing  such  oils  as  air- 
compressor  oils,  turbine  oils,  transformer  oils  and  superheater 
cylinder  oils.  In  these  tests  the  condition  of  the  residue,  as  de- 
termined by  its  appearance  and  by  its  behavior  in  the  gasoline 
test,  is  of  more  importance  than  the  actual  loss  on  evaporation. 
(See  heat  test  and  gasoline  test.) 

For  example  of  evaporation  losses  for  various  oils  see  Index 
for  analyses  of  spindle  oils,  cylinder  oils,  railroad  cylinder  oils 
and  motor  oils. 

E.  COLD  TEST. 

The  cold  test  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  the  oil  will 
still  flow.  Methods  of  making  the  test  vary  and  the  temperature 
found  has  many  names  besides  the  cold  test,  such  as  cloud  test, 
pour  test,  flow  test,  chill  point,  freezing  point,  setting  point,  etc., 
etc.  The  oil  does  not  solidify  as  a  whole,  but  becomes  solid  from 
the  freezing  out  of  some  constituent,  such  as  paraffin. 

The  cold  test  is  valuable  where  oils  are  to  be  exposed  to  low 
temperatures,  such  as  on  freight  cars  in  winter,  for  use  on  pneu- 
matic tools,  etc.  In  general  a  lower  cold  test  is  required  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  For  general  lubrication  the  cold  test  should  be 
9 


Il6  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS/ 

sufficiently  low  to  give  a  free  flowing  oil  under  the  most  severe 
service  conditions,  otherwise  serious  trouble  may  result  from 
freezing  of  the  oil. 

The  cold  test  has  no  special  bearing  on  the  lubricating  value 
of  an  oil  except  at  low  temperatures.  The  cold  test  of  western 
oils  is  naturally  lower  than  the  cold  test  of  Pennsylvania  oils  on 
account  of  freedom  from  paraffin. 

The  usual  method  of  making  the  test  is  to  put  30  cc. 
(i  ounce)  of  the  oil  in  a  4-ounce  sample  bottle  fitted  with 
a  stopper  carrying  a  thermometer,  and  chill  the  oil  by  immersion 
in  a  freezing  mixture.  The  chilling  is  gradual  and  the  oil  is 
stirred  during  the  freezing.  The  bottle  is  removed  from  the 
freezing  mixture  every  few  degrees  and  the  temperature  noted 
at  which  the  oil  ceases  to  flow  in  the  bottle  or  from  the  thermom- 
eter bulb,  this  temperature  being  recorded  as  the  cold  test  of  the 
oil.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  method  is  to  freeze  the  oil 
solid,  remove  the  bottle  from  the  freezing  bath  and  note  the  cold 
test  as  the  point  at  which  the  oil  softens  sufficiently  to  flow  from 
one  end  of  the  bottle  to  the  other  (see  Index). 

The  most  usual  method  is  to  heat  the  oil  to  175°  F.  before 
making  the  cold  test. 

During  the  determination  of  the  cold 'test,  the  temperature  may 
be  noted  at  which  the  oil  begins  to  become  cloudy  or  opaque. 
This  point  is  called  the  cloud  test.  It  is  higher  than  the  cold 
test  and  indicates  the  amount  of  paraffin  or  other  solid  substance 
present  in  the  oil. 

F.  COLOR  AND  APPEARANCE. 

The  color  of  an  oil  is  no  indication  of  its  lubricating  value. 
Heavy  oils  have  deeper  colors  than  light  oils,  such  as  the  par- 
affin oils  or  non-viscous  neutrals.  Oils  should  not  be  darker 
than  their  viscosity  warrants  as  such  a  condition  is  evidence  of  in- 
complete or  improper  refining.  Highly  filtered  oils  are  paler  than 
other  oils  of  corresponding  viscosity,  but  the  color  of  oils  can  be 
lightened  by  acid  treatment. 

Red  engine  oils  should  be  clear  when  viewed  toward  the  light 
in  a  sample  bottle.  Oils  should  be  free  from  any  turbidity  which 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   RUBRICATING   OII,S 

might  indicate  the  presence  of  water,  paraffin,  glue  or  other 
impurities. 

Cylinder  oils,  if  free  from  tar,  are  green  in  color  instead  of 
black,  but  the  gasoline  test  is  more  reliable  for  detecting  tar. 

All  mineral  oils  show  more  or  less  "bloom"  or  fluorescence  un- 
less the  bloom  is  artificially  removed  by  the  addition  of  nitro- 
benzene (oil  of  mirbane),  or  by  nitro-naphthalene. 

G.  EMULSIFICATION  TEST. 

For  oils  used  in  circulating  systems  where  the  oil  must  be  used 
repeatedly,  such  as  in  steam  turbines,  the  oil  must  be  able  to 
separate  from  water  readily  and  must  retain  this  property  during 
use.  The  tendency  to  emulsify  seems  to  be  related  to  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  sulphur  compounds,  soaps  and  fatty  oils  or  or- 
ganic acids.  The  most  important  single  test  for  a  turbine  oil  or 
similar  oil,  after  the  viscosity  test,  is  the  emulsification  test.  The 
thickening  of  an  oil  in  service  prevents  proper  circulation  and 
lubrication,  and  failure  to  separate  from  water  makes  an  early 
rejection  of  the  oil  necessary. 

.  The  test  is  made  by  vigorously  stirring  a  definite  quantity  of 
the  oil  with  a  definite  quantity  of  water.  Dr.  Herschel  (Bureau 
of  Standards  Tech.  Paper  No.  86)  makes  the  test  as  follows : 

"Twenty  cc.  of  oil  and  40  cc.  of  distilled  water  are  placed  in  a  100  cc. 
cylinder  having  an  inside  diameter  of  26  millimeters  and  heated  in  a 
water  bath  to  55°  C.  The  liquids  are  then  stirred  with  a  paddle  for 
5  minutes  ac  a  speed  of  1,500  revolutions  per  minute.  The  paddle  is 
simply  a  metal  plate  89  by  20  by  1.5  millimeters  submerged  in  the  liquid. 
The  cylinder  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time  not  exceeding  i  hour  at  a 
temperature  of  55°  C.,  and  from  each  of  the  readings,  taken  as  frequently 
as  necessary,  of  the  volume  of  oil  settled  out  from  the  emulsion,  there 
is  calculated  the  average  rate  of  settling  between  the  time  of  stopping 
the  paddle  and  the  time  of  observation.  The  maximum  rate  of  settling 
thus  obtained  is  called  the  demulsibility,  and  is  used  as  a  measure  of  the 
resistance  of  the  oil  to  emulsification.  The  maximum  possible  demulsi- 
bility is  1,200,  as. the  first  reading  is  taken  I  minute  after  stopping  the 
paddle."  ' 

Small  variations  in  the  size  of  the  paddle  do  not  make  any 
great  difference  in  the  result.  The  "demulsibility"  is  calculated 
as  follows  when  a  cylinder  is  used  which  is  graduated  from  the 


iiS 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


Emulsifier  in  use  at  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 
(From  Bureau  of  Standards  Tech.  Paper  No.  86.) 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS  119 

bottom  up :  If  the  reading  at  the  upper  surface  of  the  emulsion 
is  50  cc.  at  the  end  of  15  minutes,  the  rate  of  settling  or  demulsi- 

bility  =  (60  —  50)  X  -  -  =  40  cc.  per  hour ;  for  a  reading  of 

33r 

45  cc.  and  a  time  of  10  minutes,  demulsibility  =  (60  —  45  X 

-  =  90  cc.  per  hour.    A  high  demulsibility  shows  a  good  oil. 

The  majority  of  the  oils  on  the  market  are  either  very  good  or 
very  bad.  Oils  of  high  ash  content  show  little  resistance  to 
emulsification. 

The  color  of  an  oil  has  no  real  connection  with  the  demulsi- 
bility, though  highly  filtered  oils  show  high  resistance  to  emul- 
sification. Small  amounts  of  impurities,  too  small  to  determine 
chemically,  may  cause  an  oil  to  emulsify,  but  the  engineer  is  more 
concerned  with  the  fact  of  emulsification  than  with  its  cause. 
The  General  Supply  Committee,  which  makes  contracts  for  pur- 
chasing supplies  for  various  departments  of  the  Government,  has 
specified  a  demulsibility  of  300  for  turbine  and  spindle  oils. 
This  is  approximately  the  value  that  would  be  obtained  with  a 
half  and  half  mixture  of  kerosene  and  olive  oil,  with  a  volume  of 
water  equal  to  twice  that  of  the  kerosene  and  olive  oil  together. 

Owing  to  the  temperature  and  exposure  to  air,  oils  develop 
acid  which  causes  the  demulsibility  to  decrease.  Dr.  Herschel 
(pp.  34  and  35)  gives  the  following  figures  for  new  and  used 
oils: 

DEMULSIBILITIES  OF  STEAM-TURBINE  OILS 
Section  I. — New  Oils 


x.        Demulsi- 
No-        bility 

Comment 

I              1200 

Proved  satisfactory. 

2    1            192 

Best  satisfaction  in  use  of  any  oil  of 

this  type. 

3     1    I2°° 

f  These  two  oils  are  in  use. 

*     I      400 

) 

7i 

We  have  been  asked  to  try  this  oil. 

4           600 

Proves  to  be  very  satisfactory. 

5          1200 

We  have  been  using  this  brand  for  10  years. 

6  !        300 

Satisfactory  for  our  use. 

I2O 


AMERICAN   lyUBRICANTS 


Section  II.— Used  Oils. 


No. 

Demulsi- 
bility 

Months 
in  use 

Comment 

7 

8l 

36 

So  far  is  very  satisfactory. 

8 

85 

I 

Have  practically  no  difficulty. 

9 

41 

12 

Results  considered  as  satisfactory. 

10 

3 

24 

Contemplating  a  change  of  oil. 

ii 

81 

5 

Has  proven  satisfactory. 

12 

39 

12 

12 

98 

10 

12 

87 

3 

* 

13 

75 

7 

Section  III.— New  and  Used  Oils  of  Same  Brand 


Demulsibility 

No. 

in  use 

Comment 

New 

Used 

14 

150 

74 

2 

15 

280 

93 

12 

This  grade  of  oil  has  proved  satisfactory. 

16 

600 

102 

24 

17 

68 

I 

29 

Oil  still  doing  satisfactory  service. 

18 

168 

0 

I2O 

25  per  cent,  of  fresh  oil  added  since  July,  1906. 

19 

1  200 

12 

II 

Discoloration  due  to  babbitt  bearings. 

20 

4i 

4 

6 

Deposit  after  6  months'  use. 

21 

1  200 

114 

60 

22 

94 

32 

IO 

23 

80 

23 

20 

24 

I2O 

IO2 

2 

Used  this  brand  a  great  many  years. 

"If  oils  of  sufficiently  high  demulsibility  are  used,  no  trouble  is  experi- 
enced with  emulsification.  It  has  been  found  also  that  oils  of  high 
demulsibility  will  last  longer  in  use  before  becoming  unserviceable  from 
the  formation  of  deposits.  It  seems  probable  that  for  any  particular 
turbine  in  a  given  plant  a  value  for  the  demulsibility  could  be  found 
beyond  which  it  would  be  unsafe  to  go,  and  that  it  would  be  an  aid  to 
the  operating  engineer  to  keep  record  of  the  demulsibility,  as  well  as 
of  the  amount  of  sediment,  in  determining  when  the  oil  becomes  unfit 
for  use." 

Phillips  (/.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  pp.  697-701,  1915)  uses  500  cc. 
of  oil  and  500  cc.  of  water  at  100°  C.,  stirring  being  accom- 
plished in  a  special  apparatus  by  means  of  a  high  speed  motor, 
the  speed  and  time  being  specified.  The  oil-water  mixture  is 
run  into  graduated  cylinder  and  the  amount  of  separated  oil 


PHYSICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   RUBRICATING   OILS          121 

read  off  after  24  hours'  standing.  The  "demulsification  value" 
is  calculated  from  the  percentage  of  oil  separated  as  compared 
with  the  amount  of  oil  taken.  He  states  that  in  actual  practice 
with  over  700  samples  a  demulsification  value  of  over  90  per 
cent,  always  proved  satisfactory  for  turbine  service.  This  "demul- 
sification value"  is  not  the  same  as  Herschel's  "demulsibility." 
An  apparatus  on  the  same  principle  as  the  two  above  is  used  by 
Bryan  (/.  Am.  Soc.  Naval  Engrs.,  26,  p.  559,  1914). 

Conradson's  method  (/.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Chem.,  pp.  166-167, 
1917,  and  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Test.  Mat.,  Vol.  XVI,  Pt.  II,  1916)  is 
somewhat  simpler,  steam  being  conducted  from  a  copper  retort 
by  means  of  a  delivery  tube  to  the  bottom  of  a  250  cc.  graduated 
glass  cylinder  containing  20  cc.  of  water  and  100  cc.  of  oil.  The 
oil  is  churned  up  by  the  steam  for  10  minutes.  The  amount  and 
condition  of  the  oil,  the  emulsion  and  the  water  are  noted  after 
standing  for  one  hour  in  a  water  bath  at  130°  F. 

Emulsification  tests  have  been  made  by  shaking  oil  and  water 
together  in  sample  bottles  or  in  test  tubes,  but  the  results  are  not 
satisfactory  as  the  shaking  is  not  vigorous  enough  unless  a  spe- 
cial mechanical  shaker  is  used. 

Holde  and  Schwarz  have  given  emulsification  tests  for  steam 
cylinder  oils,  in  which  equal  parts  of  oil  and  water  are  shaken 
for  one  minute  in  a  wide  test  tube  at  185°  F.  Not  over  I  milli- 
meter of  emulsion  should  remain  after  one  hour  at  this  tempera- 
ture when  10  cc.  of  oil  are  used.  Unless  the  condensed  water  is 
to  be  separated  from  the  oil  after  use,  the  chief  value  of  the  test 
would  be  as  an  indication  of  the  presence  of  soaps  which  might 
throw  doubt  on  the  accuracy  of  the  viscosity  test.  Ashing  the 
oil  would  give  the  same  information.  It  is  not  known  whether 
an  emulsification  is  desirable  or  undesirable  in  the  actual  lubri- 
cation of  a  steam  cylinder. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


CHEMICAL  METHODS  OF  TESTING  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

Chemical  methods  are  used  to  determine  the  nature  and  amount 
of  impurities  in  oils,  the  true  character  of  oils,  and  the  behavior 
of  oils  under  certain  conditions  of  treatment,  such  as  prolonged 
and  excessive  heating.  Absence  of  chemical  action  and  a  high 
resistance  to  chemical  change  are  desirable  in  lubricating  oils. 

A.  FREE  ACID. 

Free  acid,  or  acidity,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid 
from  improper  refining,  to  the  presence  of  fatty  acids  in  cylinder 
oils  or  other  compounded  oils,  or  to  the  development  of  acid  in 
oil  from  exposure  to  heat  and  air.  Straight  mineral  oil  should 
show  no  acidity.  Properly  treated  mineral  oils  are  either  neutral 
or  slightly  alkaline  or  show  an  alkaline  ash.  Compounded  oils 
may  develop  acid  by  the  decomposition  of  the  fatty  oils  under 
heat. 

Acids  should  not  be  present  as  they  corrode  iron,  brass  and 
other  metals.  Mineral  acids  are  especially  active  in  this  par- 
ticular, although  fatty  acids  become  very  active  and  corrode 
metals  rapidly  at  high  temperatures.  Not  more  than  0.2  per  cent, 
of  SO3  or  2  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid  should  ever  be  present. 

The  amount  of  free  acid  is  determined  by  putting  10  grams  of 
the  oil  in  an  Erlenmeyer  flask,  adding  60  cc.  of  neutral  alcohol, 
warming  to  140°  F.  and  titrating  with  standard  alkali  in  the 
presence  of  phenolphthalein,  the  flask  being  repeatedly  and  thor- 
oughly shaken.  The  acidity  or  "acid  number"  is  reported  as  the 
number  of  milligrams  of  caustic  potash  (KOH)  required  to 
neutralize  I  gram  of  the  oil.  The  standard  alkali  should  be  free 
from  carbonates  and  a  "blank"  test  should  be  run  on  the  alcohol 
if  it  is  not  known  to  be  neutral  and  the  proper  correction  made 
before  calculating  the  acidity. 

To  calculate  the  "acid  number"  where  N/io  alkali  is  used, 
multiply  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  used  in  the  titration  by 
5.6  and 'divide  the  result  by  the  number  of  grams  of  oil  used. 
If  the  acidity  is  to  be  reported  in  per  cent,  of  SO3,  as  for  mineral 


CHEMICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS         123 

acids,  divide  the  acid  number  by  14.  To  calculate  the  acidity  to 
"free  oleic  acid,"  as  for  compounded  oils,  divide  the  acid  number 
,by2. 

Sulphuric  acid  can  be  detected  by  shaking  some  of  the  oil  with 
warm  water  and  adding  a  few  drops  of  barium  chloride  solution 
containing  a  little  hydrochloric  acid.  A  fine  white  precipitate 
shows  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Action  on  Copper :  Spread  some  of  the  oil  on  a  bright  strip 
of  polished  copper.  The  copper  should  not  corrode  or  turn 
green  after  24  hours'  exposure  to  the  air.  A  similar  test  may  be 
made  on  polished  steel  after  one  or  two  weeks  exposure. 

B.  ASH. 

Ash  is  only  present  in  appreciable  quantities  in  oils  containing 
soaps,  either  as  added  soaps  or  naphthenic  soaps  unremoved  in 
the  refining.  Well  refined  engine  or  motor  oils  do  not  contain 
over  0.02  per  cent,  ash,  and  cylinder  oils  seldom  as  much  as  o.i 
per  cent,  ash  which  should  be  practically  free  from  alkali.  If  the 
ash  is  red  it  is  chiefly  iron  oxide  from  the  stills. 

The  ash  is  determined  by  carefully  burning  20  grams  of  the 
oil  in  a  platinum  or  silica  dish  and  igniting  until  the  carbon  is 
burned  out.  Final  ashing  may  be  hastened  by  cooling  the  dish, 
adding  a  little  solid  ammonium  nitrate  and  reheating.  A  platinum 
dish  should  not  be  used  if  the  presence  of  lead  soaps  is  suspected. 

Mineral  castor  oil  will  contain  weighable  ash  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  aluminum  or  other  soaps  present. 

C.  SOAPS. 

Lime  or  aluminum  soaps  can  be  detected 'by  shaking  the  oil 
with  weak  hydrochloric  acid  solution  and  evaporating  the  solu- 
tion before  making  the  usual  qualitative  tests. 

Alkali  soaps  are  indicated  by  a  pink  color  when  the  oil  is  shaken 
with  water  containing  phenolphthalein,  also  by  the  tendency  to 
form  emulsions  with  water,  and  to  "string"  or  "rope"  when  the 
stopper  is  removed  from  the  bottle.  Alkaline  soaps  yield  an 
alkaline  ash  which  can  be  titrated  as  given  under  greases. 

Soaps  can  be  determined  quantitatively  (a)  from  the  ash  by 
titration  if  alkali  or  lime  is  present,  (b)  by  shaking  the  oil  with 


124  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  determining  the  ash  in  the  acid  ex- 
tract, or  (c)  the  free  acids  liberated  in  the  oil  by  shaking  with  the 
hydrochloric  acid  may  be  determined  after  thoroughly  washing 
out  all  the  mineral  acid.  This  last  is  the  better  method  as  a  very 
small  amount  of  ash  corresponds  to  a  large  amount  of  soap, 
particularly  aluminum  soaps.  The  free,  fatty  acids  are  not  solu- 
ble in  water  but  are  soluble  in  oil,  while  the  hydrochloric  acid  can 
be  completely  removed  by  shaking  the  oil  with  warm  water. 
Emulsions  formed  by  the  warm  water  can  be  broken  up  by  the 
addition  of  light  solvents  such  as  ether  or  gasoline.  The  acidity 
of  the  original  oil  as  well  as  of  the  treated  oil  should  be  deter- 
mined and  the  soap  calculated  from  the  difference  between  the 
two  determinations. 

D.  HEAT  TEST. 

This  test  is  used  for  oils  which  are  to  be  subjected  to  heat,  such 
as  air  compressor  oils,  turbine  oils,  motor  oils,  transformer  oils 
and  steam  cylinder  oils  (for  superheater).  The  oils  are  heated 
for  six  hours  just  below  their  flash  points,  usually  400°  to  550° 
F.,  the  temperature  being  kept  at  a  definite  point  previously  de- 
cided upon.  The  oil  to  be  tested  is  put  into  dishes  as  for  the 
Evaporation  Test,  or  into  glass  sample  bottles  which  are  heated 
in  an  air-bath  while  air  is  blown  through  the  bath.  The  oil  is 
allowed  to  cool  and  any  change  in  color  is  noted  as  well  as  the 
formation  of  any  deposit.  A  very  dark  color  with  a  heavy  black 
precipitate  on  standing  indicates  much  decomposition  due  prob- 
ably to  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  an  undesirable  form.  The  oil 
is  also  dissolved  in  88°  Pennsylvania  gasoline  after  heating  and 
the  amount  of  precipitate  noted  on  standing.  The  best  oils  will 
dissolve  clear  without  the  formation  of  any  sediment. 

The  higher  temperatures  {500°  F.  and  over)  are  used  for 
cylinder  oils  and  steam  may  be'  blown  through  instead  of  air 
using  an  apparatus  similar  to  Conradson's  (see  Index). 

The  heat  test  is  supposed  to  have  great  value  for  motor  oils  as 
an  indication  of  the  amount  of  carbonization  in  practice.  Studies 
have  been  made  by  Waters  of  "The  Behavior  of  High-Boiling 
Oils  on  Heating  in  the  Air"  (/.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Chem.,  pp.  233-237, 


CHEMICAL    METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS         125 

1911)  ;  on  "The  Effect  of  Added  Fatty  and  Other  Oils  upon  the 
Carbonization  of  Mineral  Lubricating  Oil"  (/.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Chem., 
pp.  812-816)  ;  and  on  the  Oxidation  of  Automobile  Cylinder  Oils 
(7.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  587-592,  1916). 

\Yaters  conducts  the  carbonization  test  or  heat  test  at  250°  C. 
(482°  F.)  for  two  and  one  half  hours,  and  niters  off  the  pre- 
cipitate formed  with  petroleum  ether  after  standing  over  night. 

E.  GASOLINE  TEST. 

This  is  a  test  for  tarry  matter,  asphalt,  gummy  material,  and 
other  impurities.  These  substances  may  be  present  in  the  original 
oil  or  formed  in  some  of  the  heat  tests.  Usually  5  cc.  of  the  oil 
are  dissolved  in  95  cc.  of  Pennsylvania  gasoline  (88°  Be.)  by 
shaking  and  the  amount  of  turbidity  noted  as  well  as  the  amount 
of  precipitate  on  standing  one  hour  or  longer.  No  precipitate 
or  turbidity  should  be  noticed  with  the  best  oils. 

Steam  cylinder  oils  and  stocks  should  be  found  free  from  tar 
or  suspended  matter  by  this  test.  The  gasoline  test  on  the  oil  after 
heating  often  affords  valuable  information  as  to  the  changes 
which  heat  will  cause  in  the  oil. 

F.  CARBON  RESIDUE  TEST. 

This  test,  called  also  the  carbon  test,  fixed  carbon  or  coke  test, 
is  of  no  great  value  though  it  gives  some  information  when  used 
on  oils  which  must  eventually  vaporize  or  burn,  such  as  super- 
heater cylinder  oils,  air  compressor  oils  and  motor  oils.  The 
figures  obtained  bear  no  relation  to  the  amount  of  carbonization 
that  will  take  place  in  an  automobile  cylinder,  the  heat  test  previ- 
ously described  being  more  closely  related  to  actual  carbon  for- 
mation in  practice. 

The  carbon  residue  test  is  made  by  distilling  25  cc.  of  oil  to 
dryness  from  a  special  flask  (Gray's),  the  distillation  being  con- 
ducted at  the  rate  of  one  drop  per  second  and  the  dry  residue 
weighed. 

Conradson  distils  35  grams  of  the  oil  at  the  rate  of  I  cc.  per 
minute  from  a  metal  crucible  fitted  with  a  clamped-on  lid  carry- 
ing a  suitable  condenser.  The  dry  residue  is  weighed  and 
further  analyzed  for  sulphur  compounds.  ("Apparatus  and 


126  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

Method  for  Carbon  Test  and  Ash  Residue  in  Petroleum  Lubri- 
cating Oils,"  /.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  903-905 ;  or  8th  Int.  Cong. 
Appl.  Chem.,  I,  pp.  131-132,  and  XXVII,  p.  18.) 

The  carbon  found  in  this  test  is  formed  from  the  cracking  of 
heavy  or  non-volatile  oils  and  indicates  to  some  extent  the  sta- 
bility of  the  oil  under  heat  and  the  amount  of  undistilled  oil 
present  in  the  original  oil. 

G.  DISTILLATION  TEST. 

The  author  has  found  this  test  of  value  for  determining  the 
general  nature  of  an  oil.  An  ordinary  Engler  distilling  flask,  about 
125  cc.  capacity  is  used,  as  for  kerosene  and  gasoline  distillation, 
using  a  medium  sized  glass  tube  as  a  dry  condenser.  The  flask 
can  be  wrapped  in  asbestos  cloth  if  desired,  though  a  very  strong 
flame  is  necessary  toward  the  end  of  the  distillation.  The  addi- 
tion of  as  much  as  12  or  15  per  cent,  of  steam  cylinder  stock  to 
a  distillate  can  be  detected  by  noting  the  temperature  at  which 
the  last  portion  distils.  Another  procedure  would  be  to  distil 
off  90  per  cent,  of  the  oil  and  note  the  character  of  the  residue. 

H.  SAPONIFIABLE  FATS. 

A  determination  of  the  Saponification  Number,  as  given  for 
Fatty  Oils,  is  made  on  a  5-gram  sample,  using  25  cc.  of  the 
alcoholic  potash  solution  and  25  cc.  of  benzol  to  aid  solution. 
Since  the  average  saponification  number  of  most  oils  is  190,  the 
per  cent,  of  fatty  oils  can  be  calculated  by  dividing  the  saponifica- 
tion number  by  1.9.  The  saponification  number  of  mineral  oils 
is  zero. 

This  method  is  suitable  for  getting  the  per  cent,  of  fatty  oil 
used  in  compounding  cylinder  oils  and  marine  engine  oils.  Where 
unblown  rape  oil  is  used  for  compounding,  or  where  rosin  oils 
are  present,  the  results  are  not  exact.  For  the  detection  of  rosin 
or  rosin  oils,  see  Index. 

For  heavy  or  dark  cylinder  oils,  50  cc.  of  benzol  and  an  extra 
25  cc.  of  alcohol  may  be  required  to  get  the  oil  properly  dissolved 
for  complete  saponification. 

A  working  knowledge  of  the  kind  of  fatty  oils  used  in  com- 
pounding cylinder  oils  can  be  gained  by  a  comparison  of  the  per 


CHEMICAL   METHODS   OF   TESTING   LUBRICATING   OILS         127 

cent,  of  fatty  oil  found  with  the  results  by  the  Maumene  test  or 
by  the  iodine  number.  Also  the  mineral  oil  can  be  dissolved  out 
with  ether  after  converting  the  fatty  oils  to  soaps  by  means  of 
caustic  potash  and  tests  made  as  given  under  Greases. 

I.  MAUMENE  NUMBER. 

This  is  the  rise  in  temperature  (in  °C.)  when  10  cc.  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid  are  run  into  50  cc.  of  oil.  (For  method,  see 
Index.)  The  Maumene  number  of  mineral  oils  is  usually  from 
3  to  8.  The  addition  of  fatty  oil  raises  the  Maumene  number  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  and  character  of  such  added  fatty  oil. 
The  test  is  short  and  can  yield  considerable  information,  as  in 
distinguishing  cylinder  stocks  from  compounded  oils. 

J.  IODINE  NUMBER. 

The  determination  is  made  by  the  Hanus  method  on  a  i-gram 
sample  as  given  under  Fatty  Oils  (see  Index).  The  iodine  num- 
ber of  uncracked  mineral  lubricating  oils  varies  from  6  to  15. 
Sometimes  iodine  numbers  of  20  are  met  with  for  pure  mineral 
oils,  the  value  increasing  with  the  amount  of  cracking.  The 
iodine  value  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  fatty  oils  in  propor- 
tion to  their  amount  and  nature. 

(See  paper  on  "Iodine  Number  of  Linseed  and  Petroleum 
Oils"  by  Tuttle  and  Smith,  /.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  994-998, 
1914,  or  Tech.  Paper  No.  37  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards). 

H.  Moore  (Engineer,  120,  p.  176,  1915)  considers  the  iodine 
number  a  good  indication  of  possible  acid  formation  in  Diesel 
air  compressor  oils  in  use. 

K.  SULPHUR. 

The  amount  of  sulphur  seems  to  have  an  important  bearing  on 
the  breaking  down  of  motor  oils  and  the  development  of  acidity 
and  emulsifying  properties  in  oils  used  in  circulating  systems, 
such  as  turbine  oils. 

Sulphur  may  be  determined  by  burning  10  grams  of  the  oil, 
absorbing  the  products  of  combustion  in  standardized  sodium  car- 
bonate solution  and  titrating  the  excess  of  alkali  with  standard 
mineral  acid  in  the  presence  of  methyl  orange.  Since  much  of 


128  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

the  sulphur  remains  in  the  wick,  the  wick  should  be  ashed  with  a 
little  dry  sodium  carbonate,  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  mag- 
nesium nitrate  and  determined  gravimetrically  after  further  oxi- 
dization in  solution  by  means  of  bromine.  Conradson  considers 
the  nature  of  the  sulphur  of  as  much  importance  as  its  amount. 
(See  "Apparatus  and  Method  for  Determining  Sulphur  in  Pe- 
troleum Illuminating  and  Lubricating  Oils,"  /.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem., 
pp.  842-844,  1912;  also  pp.  175-176,  1912;  and  8th  Int.  Cong. 
Appl.  Chem.,  I,  pp.  133-136,  and  XXVII,  pp.  19-20). 

For  Allen  and  Robertson's  method  for  sulphur  see  Bureau  of 
Mines  Tech.  Paper  No.  26. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES  ON  TESTING. 

"Laboratory  Tests  of  Lubricants — Interpretation  of  Analyses,"  P.  H.  Con- 
radson, /.  Ind.  and  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  171-181,  1910. 

"Some  Technical  Methods  of  Testing  Miscellaneous  Supplies,"  P.  H. 
Walker,  Bull.  No.  109,  Revised,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  recently 
reprinted  by  Bureau  of  Standards. 

Allen :    Commercial  Organic  Analysis,  4th  Ed.,  Vol.  Ill,  1910. 

Archbutt  and  Deeley:     Lubrication  and  Lubricants,  3rd  Ed.,  1912. 

Bacon  and  Hamor:     American  Petroleum  Industry,  Vol.  II,  1916. 

Gill :    A  Short  Handbook  of  Oil  Analysis. 

Holde :    Examination  of  Hydrocarbon  Oils,  ist  Eng.  Ed.,  1915. 

Hurst:    Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases,  1911,  3rd  Ed. 

Lunge:     Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis,  Vol.  Ill,  Pt.  I,  1914. 

Stillman:    Engineering  Chemistry,  1910. 

Stillman :    Examination  of  Lubricating  Oils,  1914. 

Thorpe :    Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry,  Vol.  Ill,  1912. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


LUBRICATING  GREASES. 

Greases  are  used  for  lubricating  bearings  where  the  pressures 
are  too  great  for  successful  oil  lubrication;  for  lubricating  diffi- 
cultly accessible  parts  of  machines;  for  preventing  undesirable 
splashing  as  in  certain  greases  for  cotton  mills;  for  preventing 
waste  of  lubricant  from  poorly  housed  bearings;  and  for  reduc- 
ing the  cost  of  lubrication  by  reducing  the  attention  required  and 
the  amount  of  lubricant  fed  to  the  bearings. 

Greases  are  made  in  varying  consistencies,  or  in  varying  de- 
grees of  hardness,  to  suit  different  purposes,  from  the  soft  com- 
pression cup  or  rod  cup  greases  to  the  solid  greases  used  for 
locomotive  journals. 

The  most  usual  type  of  lubricating  grease  to-day  is  the  soap- 
thickened  mineral  oil  type.  Practically  all  the  greases  met  with 
in  general  lubricating  practice  are  made  by  combining  mineral  oils 
of  different  grades  with  varying  amounts  of  lime  soaps,  soda 
soaps,  or  other  soaps.  The  texture  of  these  greases  is  influenced 
by  the  character  of  the  mineral  oil,  the  kind  of  soap  (as  soda  or 
lime),  the  amount  of  soap,  the  kind  of  fatty  oil  from  which  the 
soap  was  made  (such  as  tallow,  etc.),  by  the  presence  of  free 
fatty  oils,  by  the  presence  of  water  in  the  grease,  and  by  the 
process  of  manufacture. 

Cup  Grease. — Cup  greases  are  nearly  always  lime-soap  greases, 
from  12  to  23  per  cent,  of  lime  soaps  being  present  combined  with 
a  mineral  oil  distillate  of  low  or  medium  viscosity.  The  gen- 
eral practice  is  to  use  very  thin  oil  which  may  not  give  enough 
lubricating  body  to  the  grease  for  heavy  work.  Water  is  gen- 
erally present  from  traces  up  to  I  per  cent.  The  small  amount  of 
emulsified  water,  usually  less  than  0.4  per  cent.,  is  added  to  give 
the  proper  consistency  to  the  grease  and  to  prevent  ultimate  sep- 
aration of  the  lime-soap  and  the  mineral  oil.  The  effect  of  much 
water  is  to  make  the  grease  softer,  so  excessive  amounts  of 
water  are  seldom  found  since  the  addition  of  the  water  is  not 


I3O  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

economical  to  the  manufacturer.  Water  also  makes  the  grease 
opaque  and  lighter  in  color. 

In  connection  with  the  colloidal  character  of  greases,  see  paper 
by  Holde  on  "The  Physical  Condition  of  Machine  Greases,  Oil 
Solutions  of  Lime  Soaps  and  Heavy  Mineral  Oils"  (Z.  angew. 
Chem.,  31,  pp.  2138-44;  or  Chem.  Abs.,  pp.  123-125,  1909). 

In  making  cup  greases  it  is  important  that  only  sufficient  lime 
be  used  to  saponify  the  fat  or  fatty  oil  used,  otherwise  the  grease 
will  contain  free  lime  which  might  attack  some  kinds  of  bearings, 
e.  g.,  brass  bearings.  There  should  be  no  uncombined  fatty  acids 
in  the  grease,  but  fatty  oils  have  only  a  beneficial  effect  on  the 
bearings  in  the  absence  of  fatty  acids. 

The  cup  greases,  or  lime-soap  greases,  are  somewhat  more  gen- 
erally used  than  the  soda  greases.  Cup  greases  are  often  blended 
with  graphite  or  mica.  This  may  or  may  not  be  good  practice 
depending  on  the  amount  and  nature  of  such  additions  and  the 
purpose  for  which  the  grease  is  to  be  used.  For  heavy  machinery, 
mica  and  graphite  are  often  advantageous,  though  the  tendency 
is  to  use  excessive  amounts. 

Soda  Grease. — These  greases  are  made  by  dissolving  soda  soaps 
in  hot  mineral  oils.  Heavier  oils  are  generally  used  than  in  the 
cup  greases,  although  light  oils  are  also  used.  The  oils  used  are 
paraffin  oils,  engine  oils  and  cylinder  stocks.  Soda  greases  have 
a  better  reputation  than  lime-soap  greases  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  heavier  oils  and  on  account  of  freedom  from  any 
tendency  to  separate  into  soap  and  oil.  Where  soda  greases  are 
free  from  water  they  can  be  melted  and  cooled  down  without 
separation. 

The  soda  greases  are  generally  known  as  "fiber"  or  "sponge" 
greases  on  account  of  their  peculiar  texture. 

Gear  greases  or  gear  compounds  are  soda  greases  or  sponge 
greases  in  which  the  soap  is  of  a  stringy  character  and  the  oil 
is  a  heavy,  dark  oil  or  cylinder  stock.  On  account  of  the  viscous 
nature  of  the  oil  these  greases  show  good  adhesive  properties 
and  a  good  cushioning  effect. 

For  special  purposes,  some  of  the  stiff,  heavy  soda  greases 


LUBRICATING   GREASES  13! 

may  contain  up  to  50  or  even  60  per  cent,  of  soaps  for  heavy 
bearings  or  journals  carrying  heavy  loads. 

Soda  greases  should  not  contain  any  uncombined  caustic.  Or- 
dinarily, however,  there  is  no  special  difficulty  involved  in  making 
a  neutral  product. 

Greases  should  not  ordinarily  be  stiffer  than  absolutely  neces- 
sary as  stiff  greases  use  up  power  to  a  marked  extent. 

Non-Fluid  and  Soap-Thickened  Oils. — The  non-fluid  oils  or 
solidified  oils  are  made  by  combining  from  0.5  to  7  per  cent,  of 
suitable  soaps  (lime,  aluminum,  lead  or  soda  soaps,  alone  or 
mixed)  with  light  mineral  oils,  such  as  paraffin  oils.  These 
treated  oils  vary  in  consistency  from  the  soft  pastes  used  for 
rod  cups  down  to  thick  oils.  Mineral  castor  oil  is  made  by  dis- 
solving from  2  to  5  per  cent,  of  aluminum  soaps  in  a  light  par- 
affin oil,  the  effect  being  to  give  a  stringy  character  to  the  oil 
and  greatly  increase  its  apparent  viscosity.  The  real  viscosity 
of  such  oils  cannot  be  determined  at  low  temperatures  without 
first  removing  the  soap. 

Thickened  oils  and  grease  pastes  or  jellies  have  many  advan- 
tageous applications  as  they  can  be  made  of  fairly  low  melting 
points  for  use  in  cups  where  a  slight  increase  in  temperature  will 
cause  them  to  flow  to  the  bearing.  One  of  the  special  uses  is  for 
"comb  box"  grease  and  non-splash  oils  in  cotton  mills  to  prevent 
the  lubricant  from  damaging  the  fabric. 

Axle  Grease. — This  grade  of  grease  is  usually  made  from  lime 
and  rosin  oil,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  mineral  oil.  The 
lime  combines  with  the  acids  in  the  rosin  or  rosin  oil  forming 
a  "soap"  which  thickens  the  oil  so  as  to  form  a  grease.  Usually 
more  lime  is  used  than  is  required  to  combine  with  the  rosin 
acids,  the  excess  lime  remaining  as  a  filler.  Mica,  talc,  soap- 
stone,  and  other  powdered  substances  are  also  added  to  this  grade 
of  grease.  Axle  grease  is  only  suitable  for  rough  work,  such  as 
for  use  on  iron  bearings. 

Rosin  consists  mainly  of  organic  acids  and  is  soluble  in  hot 
petroleum  oils.  Rosin  oil,  made  by  distilling  rosin  at  a  high  tem- 
perature (above  360°  C.),  contains  up  to  40  per  cent,  of  organic 
acids.  The  oil  high  in  acids  is  most  suitable  for  grease  making. 
10 


132 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


The  method  of  manufacture  is  either  to  stir  the  dry  slaked  lime 
into  the  cold  rosin  oil  and  let  it  "set"  without  any  further  stirring 
or  agitation,  or  to  make  a  cream  of  the  slaked  lime  with  water, 
this  cream  being  stirred  into  the  rosin  oil.  In  this  latter  case 
the  water  is  expelled  during  the  rapid  setting  of  the  mix  and  min- 
eral oil  is  then  stirred  in  after  running  off  the  water. 

Rosin  greases  usually  contain  either  small  amounts  of  water 
or  about  20  per  cent,  of  water. 

Petroleum  Grease. — Heavy  petroleum  residuum,  after  the  lighter 
oils  are  distilled  off  to  a  very  high  temperature,  is  more  or  less 
solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  has  a  very  high  fire  test  and  a  high 
viscosity  even  at  elevated  temperatures.  It  can  be  used  directly 
as  a  hot  neck,  cold  neck,  or  pinion  grease,  or  it  can  be  mixed 
with  various  pitches  and  tars  for  similar  uses.  The  pinion 
greases  are  the  thinner  grades.  These  grades  have  high  adhesive 
properties,  particularly  in  the  absence  of  water. 

The  thinner  products  containing  tar,  pitch,  rosin  and  similar 
substances,  find  many  applications,  such  as  for  ropes,  chains, 
cables,  gears,  etc.,  where  a  cheap  material  is  essential.  They  are 
not  suitable  for  light  fast-moving  gears  on  account  of  power 
losses. 

Petroleum  grease  may  also  be  made  by  blending  solid  petro- 
latums, such  as  vaseline,  with  high  viscosity  mineral  oil.  Such 
products,  whether  blended  with  vaseline,  paraffin,  or  tallow,  have 
low  melting  points  and  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  soap- 
thickened  greases  for  general  uses. 

ANALYSES  OF  GREASES. 
(By  the  author. ) 


Medium 
cup 
grease 

Cup 

grease 

No.  3 
cup 
grease 

Soft 
comb- 
box 
grease 

Rod  -cup 
grease 

Trans- 
'  mission 
gear 
grease 

Flash  point  (°F.  )  
Melting  point  (°C.)  
Water  (  v/r>\    . 

365 
83 

345 
85 
tr 

355 
83 
Pres 

360 

77 

305 

540 
High 

212 

Soda  soaps  (%  )  

1y-  1 

1  5-1 

2    I 

o 

Fattv  oil1*  (  %  \ 

**O 

I2-5 

Gravitv  (  °Re  1 

•4 

-1 

9Q    9 

Gravity  of  oil  (°Be  )  • 

•«3'^ 

oc  £\ 

Viscosity  of  oil  (  ioo°F)  .  .  - 

*/•/ 

104 

— 

— 

— 

6*  -4 

58 

25.0 

High 

LUBRICATING   GREASES 


133 


Analyses  of  other  greases  showed  from  3.2  per  cent,  of  lime 
soaps  for  a  non-fluid  oil  and  3.9  per  cent,  soda  soap  in  a  pale 
yellow  elevator  grease  to  48.4  per  cent,  soda  soap  in  a  grease 
for  use  on  laundry  machinery. 

COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  GREASES. 
(Gillette.) 


V- 

i 

0, 

w 

V 

]j 

"C 

|g 

38 

ll 
|5 

20  ^ 
X  o 

£            tc     - 

-         'x.  w 

"3       c  a 

L. 
U 

C 

1 

F 

1 

•3 

ee  acid 

ill 

1 

2 

S  :  So 

^ 

d 

c 

s 

rt 

£ 

fc 

s=5 

<  C 

195 

93        18 

tr. 

II 

16 

56 

17 

O 

53 

0.097 

Summer  motor.  160 

87      170 

tr. 

38 

36 

25 

tr. 

39 

0.075 

Winter  motor-  -175 

86         7 

tr. 

23 

40 

375 

6.1 

42 

0.063 

T^1 

193- 

85        24 

O.2 

16 

— 

67 

16 

0 

38 

0.057 

K    ... 

195 

93        66 

0.3 

20 

—  _ 

60 

20 

0-3 

39 

0.054 

Auto  ..... 

190 

79        ii 

I.O 

19 

— 

60 

20 

tr. 

32 

0.046 

Tallow  A  ...        210 

o    c 

T   /I1 

22 

7^ 

Q 

O.O22 

Tallow  XX-...  215 

49      200 

tr. 

3o7 

A.  4 

2.  11 

20 

6 

48 

O 

25 

O.O29 

Lead  rosin  oil..  240 

102         7 

24.7 

— 

i.72 

— 

o 

O 

40 

0.067 

Lime  rosin  oil  .  198 

77       3i 

tr. 

— 

9-93 

— 

o 

o 

42      0.048 

Lime  rosin  oil  •  198 

751        4 

20.  o 

— 

7.8^ 



o 

o 

29 

0.036 

Soda  grease  215 

83       35 

0 

— 

786 

o 

o 

17     0.019 

Non-fluid  oil  ...  210 

76       27 

o 

9.8 

12.9* 

70 

7 

o 

25     0.026 

No.4petrolatum  247 

47          6 

0 

— 

100 

0 

0 

16     0.018 

Lcird  oil 

265 

5  1        o 

o 

— 

o 

100 

— 

7     o.oii 

1  Potash  soap.  -  I^ead  (soap).  3  CaO.  4 Soda  soap.  5  Mainly  palm  oil.  6  Oil  of  24.2°B£. 
'  Paraffin. 

Gillette  ("Analysis  and  Friction  Tests  of  Lubricating  Greases," 
/.  Ind.  &  Hng.  Chem.,  pp.  351-360,  1909),  classifies  commercial 
greases  as  follows : 

"A.  The  tallow  type:  These  greases  are  made  up  of  tallow  and 
more  or  less  of  an  alkali  soap,  commonly  the  sodium  or  potassium  soaps 
of  palm  oil,  mixed  with  a  smaller  amount  of  mineral  oil.  These  were 
the  principal  types  of  lubricating  grease  ten  or  twenty  years  ago,  but 
to-day  are  less  used  than  the  greases  of  type  B. 

"B.  The  soap-thickened  mineral  oil  type :  These  are  the  most  common 
journal  greases  to-day,  and  are  composed  of  mineral  oil  of  various  grades 
made  solid  by  the  addition  of  calcium  or  sodium  soaps.  Calcium  soap  is 
more  used  than  sodium. 

"C.  Types  A  or  B  with  the  addition  of  a  mineral  lubricant — usually 
graphite,  mica,  or  talc. 


134  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

"D.  The  rosin-oil  type :  These  consist  of  rosin  oil  thickened  by  lime, 
or  less  commonly,  litharge,  to  which  is  added  more  or  less  mineral  oil, 
either  paraffin  or  asphalt  oils  being  used.  These  are  sticky,  usually  con- 
tain 20-30  per  cent,  of  water,  and  find  their  chief  application  as  gear 
greases  where  true  lubrication  is  not  so  essential  as  prevention  of  wear- 
ing and  rattling  of  the  gears.  Some  very  heavy  bearings  are  occasionally 
lubricated  with  this  type  of  grease.  Tar,  pitch,  graphite  and  such  fillers 
as  wood  pulp  and  ground  cork  are  often  put  into  these  gear  greases. 

"E.  Non-fluid  oils :  These  are  thin  greases  stiffened  to  some  extent 
with  aluminum  oleate  or  a  mixture  of  soaps,  as  sodium  and  calcium. 

"F.  Special  greases,  such  as  mixtures  of  wood  pulp  and  graphite, 
thin  greases  of  any  of  the  above  types  mixed  with  wool  or  cotton  fibers, 
hot-neck  greases,  freak  greases  containing  rubber,  etc. 

"Of  these  A,  B  and  C  are  the  most  important  as  lubricants. 

"The  analysis  of  a  lubricating  grease  may  have  one  of  two  objects 
in  view :  to  duplicate  the  grease,  or  to  determine  its  value  as  a  lubricant. 
Without  resorting  to  mechanical  tests  of  the  actual  friction  reducing 
power  of  the  grease  in  question,  the  first  is  probably  the  easier  problem." 

Gillette  gives  the  analysis  of  a  number  of  greases  (see  above) 
and  the  friction  tests  on  a  small  Thurston  testing  machine  fitted 
with  a  compression  grease  cup.  In  connection  with  these  tests 
which  were  made  at  a  pressure  of  60  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
projected  bearing  area  and  a  speed  of  310-320  revolutions  per 
minute,  he  makes  the  following  statements : 

"The  general  behavior  of  a  grease  during  the  run  (3  hours)  was  as 
follows :  At  first  the  coefficient  of  friction  would  be  high,  and  the  tem- 
perature would  rise  rapidly.  In  the  case  of  a  hard  grease,  as  a  rule,  this 
would  continue  until  the  thermometer  showed  some  certain  temperature, 
nearly  up  to  the  melting  point  of  the  grease.  The  surface  of  the  bearing 
probably  did  reach  that  temperature,  although  the  thermometer  did  not 
register  quite  that  temperature,  as  there  was  some  chance  for  radiation. 

"After  the  grease  had  apparently  melted,  and  the  bearing  was  then 
in  the  state  of  an  oil-lubricated  bearing,  the  coefficient  of  friction  would 
momentarily  fall  off,  sometimes  to  a  very  low  figure,  and  the  temperature 
would  drop  rapidly.  Then  the  grease  would  seem  to  stiffen  again,  and 
the  coefficient  and  temperature  would  immediately  rise  again.  The 
graphite  grease  shows  this  behavior  to  the  greatest  extent.  This  would 
go  on  for  perhaps  an  hour,  when  a  condition  of  equilibrium  would  be 
established,  and  a  fairly  constant  reading  would  be  attained. 

"Since  the  friction  cannot  be  reduced  till  the  temperature  of  the 
bearing  has  risen  enough  for  the  grease  to  melt,  or  at  least  to  be  softened 
so  it  can  flow  over  the  bearing,  it  follows  that  other  things  being  equal, 
the  grease  with  the  highest  melting  point  will  produce  the  highest  coeffi- 


LUBRICATING   GREASES  135 

cient  of  friction.  Hence  the  lowest  melting  grease  that  will  stay  on  the 
bearing  will  have  the  lowest  coefficient  of  friction,  which  is  only  another 
way  of  saying  that  a  grease  already  melted,  *.  e.,  an  oil,  will  give  the  best 
results  wherever  it  can  possibly  be  used. 

"There  is  no  direct  proportionality  between  the  results  of  the  deter- 
mination of  any  one  analytical  constant  and  the  lubricating  power,  though 
there  seems  to  be  an  approximate  relation  between  the  melting  point  and 
the  friction  reducing  power,  as  would  be  expected.  The  relation,  however, 
is  not  close  enough  to  allow  us  to  predict  the  lubricating  value  from  the 
melting  point  without  taking  the  chemical  composition  and  the  physical 
constants  into  consideration. 

"The  graphite  grease  showed  an  unexpectedly  low  lubricating  power, 
and  would  be  best  fitted  for  a  gear  grease.  The  rosin  oil  greases,  which 
are  usually  considered  to  be  very  poor  lubricants,  showed  high  friction 
at  first,  but  after  the  bearing  had  warmed  up  enough  to  soften  them 
somewhat,  they  compared  well  with  the  more  expensive  greases.  The 
high  moisture  content  of  most  of  these  greases  would  seem  to  be  no 
drawback,  but  rather  an  advantage  in  rendering  them  less  sticky. 

"It  will  be  noted  that  the  lime  soap  greases,  the  most  common  type 
to-day,  do  not  give  as  good  results  as  the  older,  though  more  expensive 
tallow  greases.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  greases  compounded  with 
soda  soaps  are  better  lubricants  than  those  compounded  with  lime  soaps." 

In  connection  with  the  above  tests,  it  might  be  well  to  caution 
the  reader  against  drawing  too  sweeping 'conclusions,  either  for 
or  against  any  one  of  the  greases  mentioned,  when  used  under 
radically  different  conditions  of  pressure  and  friction  speed  than 
those  used  in  the  tests. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


METHODS  FOR  TESTING  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  GREASES. 

On  account  of  the  great  variety  of  greases  much  must  be  left 
to  the  judgment  and  ingenuity  of  the  analyst.  Reference  should 
be  made  to  the  cliapters  on  Methods  of  Testing  Lubricating 
Oils  and  Animal  and  Vegetable  Oils  for  the  identification  of  oils 
extracted  from  the  grease.  The  kind  of  fatty  oil  used  in  making 
up  the  grease  can  be  determined  with  reasonable  certainty  where 
only  one  kind  of  fatty  oil  has  been  used.  If  a  mixture  of  fatty 
oils  has  been  used  the  identification  is  much  more  difficult  and 
less  certain. 

Preliminary  Examination. — Much  may  be  learned  by  noting  the 
color  of  the  grease,  and  by  noting  its  odor  particularly  during  the 
determination  of  the  flash  point.  The  presence  of  tallow,  of  rosin 
and  rosin  oil  and  of  certain  other  oils  may  often  be  detected  by 
the  odor  of  the  warm  grease.  Greases  made  from  low  grade 
fats  or  tar  oil  often  have  some  scenting  material  added,  such  as 
oil  of  mirbane  (nitro-benzol).  Very  pale  greases  ordinarily  con- 
tain thin  oils,  such  as  low  viscosity  paraffin  oils.  If  the  grease 
is  completely  soluble  in  ether  or  gasoline,  no  soaps  are  present, 
and  water  would  be  shown  by  a  turbidity  of  the  solution  if  pres- 
ent in  appreciable  quantities.  The  presence  of  soap  can  also  be 
detected  easily  by  burning  a  little  of  the  grease  on  a  platinum 
crucible  lid,  or  in  a  crucible.  If  any  ash  is  present  soap  is  indi- 
cated and  the  kind  of  soap  (lime  or  soda,  etc.)  can  be  found  by 
testing  in  a  flame  on  a  platinum  wire  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  taste  of  grease  is  often  characteristic,  but  misleading 
tastes  may  develop  on  the  surface  exposed  to  air  and  light. 

PHYSICAL  TESTS. 

The  chief  physical  tests  are  determination  of  the  melting  point, 
flash  point,  consistency,  and  the  water  content. 

Melting  Point. — This  is  the  most  important  single  determina- 
tion, particularly  for  all  kinds  of  cup  greases.  The  melting  point 
is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  amount  of  soap  present,  the  kind  of 


TESTING   AND   ANALYSIS   OF   GREASES  137 

soap  (lime  or  soda,  etc.),  the  kind  of  fat  from  which  the  soap 
was  made,  the  nature  of  the  mineral  oil  used  (if  very  heavy), 
and  the  amount  of  water  present  and  its  condition.  Greases  of 
high  melting  point  show  high  coefficients  of  friction  on  testing 
machines  and  in  service. 

Gillette  uses  the  following  method:  A  piece  of  open  glass 
tubing  8  centimeters  long  and  about  0.4  centimeter  internal  diam- 
eter is  stuck  into  the  grease  so  that  a  plug  of  grease  I  centimeter 
long  is  left  in  the  glass  tube.  The  tube  is  then  attached  by  a 
rubber  band  to  a  thermometer  so  that  the  grease  plug  is  even  with 
the  bulb.  The  thermometer  with  the  tube  attached  is  then  im- 
mersed in  a  beaker  of  water  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  plug  is  5 
centimeters  below  the  surface.  The  water  is  then  heated  at  the 
rate  of  3°-4°  C.  per  minute.  When  the  melting  point  is  reached, 
the  plug,  which  is  under  a  pressure  of  5  centimeters  of  water, 
slides  upward  in  the  tube.  Checks  can  be  obtained  to  0.5°  C.,  and 
slight  variations  in  diameter  of  tube,  depth  of  immersion,  length 
of  plug,  and  rate  of  heating  would  rarely  cause  more  than  i° 
variation  from  that  obtained  by  the  prescribed  procedure. 

The  melting  point  can  also  be  determined  by  putting  the  grease 
in  a  capillary  tube  closed  at  one  end  and  noting  the  temperature 
at  which  the  grease  becomes  transparent  when  heated  in  a  water 
bath.  If  the  grease  is  melted  in  order  to  get  it  into  the  tube  the 
melting  point  determination  should  not  be  made  for  several 
hours,  as  a  freshly  melted  grease  would  give  a  different  result 
from  the  original  grease.  The  so-called  dropping  point  can  be 
determined  roughly  by  smearing  some  of  the  grease  on  the  bulb 
of  a  thermometer  and  heating  the  thermometer  in  an  air  bath. 
The  reading  can  be  taken  when  the  grease  runs  down  to  the  end 
of  the  bulb  or  when  it  actually  drops  from  the  bulb.  The  amount 
of  grease  used  causes  variation  in  the  temperature  reading. 

Greases  do  not  melt  sharply  as  a  rule,  so  that  the  temperature 
at  which  they  soften  sufficiently  to  flow  under  a  suitable  small 
pressure  seems  the  most  logical  and  definite  point  to  designate  as 
the  melting  point. 

Often  much  information  of  value  may  be  obtained  by  putting 
some  of  the  grease  on  a  wire  gauze  and  holding  high  over  a  gas 


138  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

flame.  The  melting  point  is  roughly  indicated,  and  any  tendency 
for  the  grease  to  separate  will  be  shown  by  the  oil  running 
through  the  gauze  leaving  most  of  the  soap  behind. 

Flash  Point. — The  flash  point  can  be  taken  with  any  good  open- 
cup  tester,  or  by  putting  the  grease  in  a  50  cc.  porcelain  crucible 
which  is  placed  in  a  sand  bath  and  heated  at  the  rate  of  5°  C.  per 
minute,  a  small  testing  flame  being  applied  every  3°  C. 

The  flash  point  gives  an  idea  of  the  grade  of  mineral  oil  used 
without  going  to  the  trouble  of  actually  extracting  the  oil.  Ordi- 
narily the  thin  oils  have  correspondingly  low  flash  points. 

Consistency. — This  property  of  a  grease  or  fat  is  determined 
by  using  a  special  apparatus  which  is  essentially  a  pointed  rod  of 
a  certain  weight  and  shape,  and  noting  the  weight  required  to 
cause  the  rod  to  sink  I  centimeter  into  the  grease  at  20°  C.  (68° 
F.).  Sometimes  the  reading  is  obtained  by  taking  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  rod  to  sink  a  certain  distance  into  the  grease  under 
a  definite  weight.  This  test  has  no  special  bearing  on  the  lubri- 
cating value  of  the  grease,  but  has  importance  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  the  grease  in  compression  cups,  etc. 

Water. — The  water  content  of  greases  is  important  and  neces- 
sary in  order  to  give  them  the  proper  texture.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  for  lime-soap  greases,  but  only  very  small  amounts  of 
water  are  necessary  if  properly  emulsified.  The  moisture  can  be 
determined  by  heating  in  an  air  bath  at  110°  C.  until  all  frothing 
ceases.  On  account  of  the  presence  of  volatile  hydrocarbon  oils, 
this  method  gives  from  0.5  to  2  per  cent,  too  high,  depending  on 
the  character  of  the  mineral  oil  and  the  amount  of  moisture 
present.  The  heating  should  be  as  brief  as  possible. 

Where  very  exact  work  is  required,  Gillette  (/.  Ind.  &  Hng. 
Chem.,  p.  356,  1909),  recommends  Marcusson's  xylol  method: 
The  grease  is  first  tested  with  anhydrous  copper  sulphate  if  the 
grease  is  sufficiently  light  in  color.  If  the  copper  sulphate  turns 
blue  showing  the  presence  of  water,  or  if  the  grease  is  dark,  10 
grams  of  the  grease  are  weighed  into  a  300  cc.  Erlenmeyer  flask 
and  covered  with  xylol.  (This  xylol  is  prepared  for  use  by  dis- 
tilling from  water  and  separating  out  from  the  water  after  clear- 


TESTING   AND   ANALYSIS   OF   GREASES  139 

ing  in  a  separatory  funnel.)  The  flask,  connected  with  a  dry 
condenser,  is  heated  in  a  bath  of  cylinder  oil,  and  the  xylol  and 
water  slowly  distilled  off  until  the  xylol  comes  over  clear.  The 
bulk  of  the  water  comes  over  with  the  first  10  cc.  of  distillate. 
The  distillate  may  be  caught  in  centrifuge  tubes,  or  other  suitable 
tubes,  and  the  amount  of  water  read  off  after  centrifuging  or  on 
standing. 

CHEMICAL  TESTS. 

The  chief  chemical  determinations  are :  the  amount  and  nature 
of  the  oils,  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  soap,  the  amount  of 
free  acid  or  alkali,  ash  and  filler. 

The  Oils. — The  oils  can  be  removed  by  extraction  with  ether 
or  gasoline  in  a  Soxhlet  extractor.  The  oils  are  then  recovered 
by  driving  off  the  solvent  from  the  dissolved  oil.  If  iime  soaps 
are  present  some  of  the  soap  is  also  dissolved  so  the  separation  is 
not  satisfactory.  In  this  case  the  nature  of  the  oil  can  be  deter- 
mined after  extraction  of  the  grease  with  cold  ethyl  acetate  which 
seems  to  be  about  the  only  organic  solvent  which  can  be  used 
at  all  successfully. 

The  proportion  of  fatty  oil  can  be  determined  by  saponification 
with  alcoholic  potash  and  benzol  as  given  for  the  determination 
of  fatty  oils  in  cylinder  oil  (see  Index).  The  fatty  acids  from 
this  saponification  can  be  recovered  if  desired  and  tested  for 
further  identification  by  the  iodine  number,  melting  point,  etc. 
The  per  cent,  of  fatty  oil  in  the  mixed  oils  can  be  calculated 
from  the  saponification  number  by  dividing  by  190  and  multiply- 
ing by  100.  The  average  saponification  of  most  fatty  oils,  ex- 
cept rape  oil,  rosin  oil,  etc.,  is  about  190. 

Rosin  oil  is  tested  for  by  means  of  the  Liebermann-Storch  re- 
action, and  the  amount  of  rosin  acids  can  be  determined  by 
Twitchell's  method  if  desired. 

Soaps. — A  satisfactory  scheme  for  determining  the  amount  of 
oils  and  soaps  is  as  follows:  Stir  10  grams  of  the  grease  with 
ether  until  dissolved  or  disintegrated,  place  the  whole  in  a  separa- 
tory funnel  and  shake  with  about  10  cc.  of  I :  I  hydrochloric  acid 
to  decompose  the  soaps.  Remove  the  acid  and  shake  the  ether 


I4O  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

with  another  10  cc.  portion  of  the  acid.  Continue  to  wash  the 
ether  with  successive  small  portions  of  water  until  all  the  acid 
has  been  removed.  The  ether  now  contains  all  the  mineral  oil, 
all  the  fatty  oils,  the  original  free  fatty  acids,  and  the  fatty  acids 
obtained  from  decomposing  the  soaps.  The  acid  solutions  and 
washings  contain  the  bases  in  solution.  The  extraction  can  be 
made  with  naphtha,  petroleum  ether  or  very  light  gasoline  instead 
of  with  ether. 

The  oils  can  be  recovered  by  driving  off  the  ether  and  weigh- 
ing. The  fatty  acids  are  determined  by  the  method  given  below 
for  acidity,  and  the  free  fatty  acids  present  in  the  original  grease 
deducted;  the  remainder  is  the  fatty  acids  from  the  decomposed 
soaps.  The  soaps  may  be  caculated  by  multiplying  the  per  cent. 
of  such  fatty  acids  by  the  following  factors:  Soda  soaps  1.078, 
calcium  or  lime  soaps  1.067,  lead  soaps  1.364,  and  aluminum  soaps 
1.032.  If  the  grease  contained  more  than  one  base,  as  in  a  mix- 
ture of  soda  and  lime  soap  grease,  the  soap  can  be  calculated  to 
sufficient  accuracy  for  ordinary  purposes.  The  calculations  are 
reasonably  exact  if  rosin  acids  are  absent. 

The  acid  extract  is  evaporated,  with  or  without  washing  with 
ether,  the  residue  dissolved  in  water  and  analyzed  for  the  bases 
present.  These  figures,  if  obtained,  would  serve  as  a  check  on 
the  results  calculated  above. 

Another  method  for  determining  the  amount  of  soaps,  where 
only  alkali  soaps  are  present,  is  by  extracting  the  grease  with  ether 
or  gasoline  as  given  under  "The  Oils"  just  above,  and  then  ex- 
tracting the  undissolved  residue  with  hot  water  or  hot  alcohol. 
After  filtering,  the  solution  is  evaporated  to  recover  the  soap 
which  is  weighed.  The  nature  of  the  fatty  acids  can  be  deter- 
mined by  dissolving  the  soaps  in  water,  liberating  the  acids  by 
means  of  mineral  acid,  warming  on  a  water  bath  until  the  acids 
separate  clear  on  top  of  the  water  layer,  and  testing  the  acids  for 
iodine  number,  melting  point,  etc. 

The  easiest  method  for  determining  the  amount  of  soap  is  to 
ash  several  grams  of  the  grease,  dissolve  the  ash  in  standard 
(N/2)  acid  and  titrate  the  excess  of  acid  with  standard  alkali, 
using  methyl  orange  as  indicator.    Each  cubic  centimeter  of  N/2 


TESTING   AND   ANALYSIS   OF   GREASES  141 

acid  is  equivalent  to  0.1535  gram  of  sodium  stearate  or  0.1520 
gram  of  calcium  stearate.  This  is  sufficiently  accurate  unless 
rosin  soaps  are  present  in  which  case  the  result  will  be  slightly 
low.  The  nature  of  the  base  in  the  soap  can  be  found  by  in- 
specting or  testing  the  ash,  or  by  analyzing  the  acid  solution  for 
lime  or  aluminum. 

Free  Acid. — The  amount  of  free  acid  can  be  determined  by 
dissolving  2.82  grams  of  the  grease  in  a  neutral  mixture  of  alco- 
hol and  ether,  adding  a  few  drops  of  phenolphthalein  solution 
and  titrating  with  N/io  alkali.  Each  cubic  centimeter  of  the  al- 
kali is  equal  to  I  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid.  The  free  acid  should 
be  below  2  per  cent,  as  any  free  acid  might  corrode  the  bearings. 
Only  fatty  acids  are  present  in  the  free  state  in  soap-thickened 
greases.  If  the  alcohol-ether  solution  turns  pink  upon  adding  the 
phenolphthalein,  free  alkali,  usually  lime,  is  present. 

Ash. — The  ash  contains  the  alkalies  (Na2CO3,  CaO,  etc.)  and 
mineral  impurities.  The  amount  of  the  latter  should  be  small 
or  well  under  i  per  cent.  By  analysis  of  the  ash  the  character 
and  the  amount  of  soaps  can  be  determined,  as  lime,  soda,  potash, 
lead,  zinc,  magnesium,  alumina,  etc. 

Filler. — If  graphite  is  present  the  approximate  amount  can 
generally  be  determined  by  ashing  the  grease  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, weighing,  then  burning  completely  and  re-weighing.  This 
loss  in  weight  can  be  reported  as  graphite,  although  graphite  usu- 
ally contains  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  ash.  Complete  separation 
by  extraction  is  not  always  practicable  if  graphite  is  present. 

Mineral  fillers  can  be  determined  by  the  ash  after  deducting 
the  alkalies  found,  or  by  actually  weighing  the  ash  not  dissolved 
by  acid.  These  methods  are  suitable  for  determining  the  amount 
of  mica,  talc  or  soapstone,  but  not  for  determining  the  amount 
of  lime  filler  as  this  would  be  dissolved  by  the  acid. 

For  soda  greases  the  amount  of  filler  can  be  determined  by  ex- 
tracting the  grease  with  ether,  then  with  alcohol,  the  final  residue 
being  the  filler  provided  the  extraction  was  complete  and  the 
filtrates  clear. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS. 

Oils  and  fats  are  found  ready  formed  in  all  animals  and  in  the 
seeds  of  plants.  A  fat  is  simply  an  oil  which  is  solid  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  Animal  and  vegetable  oils  are  called  fatty  oils, 
fixed  oils,  or  saponifiable  oils. 

Chemically,  fatty  oils  are  made  up  almost  entirely  of  heavy 
fatty  acids  in  combination  with  glycerine.  Sperm  oil  which  is  a 
liquid  wax  rather  than  an  oil  has  the  fatty  acids  combined  with 
other  alcohols  instead  of  with  glycerine.  However,  most  oils 
yield  about  10  per  cent,  of  glycerine  when  acted  on  by  caustic 
potash. 

The  formula  for  glycerine  is  C3H5(OH)3. 

The  three  most  widely  distributed  fatty  acids  are 
Stearic  acid,  HC18H35O2, 
Palmitic  acid,  HC16H31O2,  and 
Oleic  acid,  HC18H3302. 

There  are  many  other  fatty  acids,  some  of  which  are  important. 
They  usually  have  smaller  molecules  than  stearic  acid  (like  buty- 
ric acid,  HC4H9O2,  found  in  butter),  or  they  have  less  hydrogen 
than  oleic  acid  (like  linolenic  acid,  HC18H29O2,  found  in  linseed 
oil). 

The  fatty  acids  are  not  present  in  the  oil  in  the  free  state  to 
any  great  extent,  but  are  combined  with  the  glycerine.  The 
glyceride  of  stearic  acid,  which  is  the  compound  actually  exist- 
ing in  many  fats,  is  called  stearin  which  has  the  composition 

C3H5  ( C18H35O2 )  3- 

In  general,  glycerine  holds  in  combination  3  molecules  of 
stearic  or  other  fatty  acids.  Stearin,  palmitin,  C3H5(C16H31O2)3, 
olein,  C3H5(C18H33O2)3,  and  similar  compounds  make  up  prac- 
tically all  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  oils  and  fats. 

All  fats  contain  a  large  percentage  of  stearin  or  palmitin  as 
well  as  some  olein.  All  oils  contain  considerable  amounts  of  olein, 
or  similar  compounds  with  relatively  less  hydrogen  than  is  present 
in  stearin. 


ANIMAL   AND   VEGETABLE   OILS  143 

\Yhen  any  fatty  oil  is  treated  with  caustic  soda  or  caustic  pot- 
ash the  oil  is  broken  up  by  the  caustic  into  glycerine  and  soap. 
Soap  is  the  compound  formed  between  the  soda  or  potash  and 
the  fatty  acids.  This  breaking  up  of  the  oil  into  glycerine  and 
soap  is  called  saponification.  Thus  palmitin  is  acted  on  as 
follows : 

C3H5(C16H3102)s  +  3XaOH  =  C3H5(OH)3  +  3NaCl6H31O2. 

Palmitin  Caustic  Soda  Glycerine  Soap 

All  fatty  oils. are  saponified  by  caustic  alkalies  while  mineral 
oils  cannot  be  saponified.  During  the  saponification  of  an  oil  a 
definite  amount  of  caustic  is  used  up. 

Another  striking  characteristic  of  oils  is  the  amount  of  iodine 
each  oil  can  absorb  or  combine  with  directly.  Oils  like  linseed 
oil,  which  are  known  as  drying  oils  on  account  of  their  power 
of  thickening  upon  absorbing  oxygen,  have  high  iodine  absorbing 
power.  Other  oils,  which  dry  only  slowly  and  incompletely,  like 
cottonseed  oil,  are  called  semi-drying  oils.  These  have  somewhat 
lower  iodine  values.  Finally,  the  non-drying  oils  have  still  lower 
iodine  values.  The,  non-dry  ing  oils  show  very  little  tendency  to 
gum  or  thicken  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  drying  or  non-drying  character  of  an  oil  is  determined  by 
the  relative  amount  of  hydrogen  present  in  the  fatty  acids  making 
up  the  oil.  The  less  hydrogen  the  oil  contains,  the  more  readily 
it  dries  and  the  more  iodine  it  will  absorb.  Fatty  acids,  like 
stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  which  have  the  general  formula 
CWH2«O2,  do  not  combine  directly  with  iodine  and  so  are  called 
saturated  fatty  acids.  Consequently  the  corresponding  com- 
pounds, stearin  and  palmitin,  do  not  have  the  power  of  com- 
bining with  iodine. 

Unsaturated  fatty  acids  combine  with  a  definite  amount  of 
iodine.  Oleic  acid  and  other  acids  \vith  the  formula  C«H2M_  2O2, 
can  combine  with  2,  atoms  of  iodine.  L,inolic  acid,  found  in 
cottonseed  oil,  and  other  acids  with  the  formula  CMHaW_4O3,  can 
combine  with  4  atoms  of  iodine.  Linolenic  acid  in  linseed  oil 
has  the  formula  CnH2«  _  6O,  and  so  can  combine  with  6  atoms 
of  iodine. 


144  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Usually  semi-drying  oils  have  a  large  percentage  of  combined 
fatty  acids  capable  of  absorbing  4  atoms  of  iodine,  while  drying 
oils  have  much  fatty  acids  which  can  absorb  6  atoms  of  iodine. 

A  large  proportion  of  saturated  fatty  acids,  with  a  fairly  low 
iodine  value,  is  characteristic  of  fats,  while  the  oils  contain  a 
greater  proportion  of  unsaturated  acids  with  a  higher  iodine 
value.  Vegetable  oils  are  usually,  though  not  always,  more  highly 
unsaturated  than  terrestial  animal  oils. 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  process,  known  as  "hydrogenation" 
or  hardening  of  oils,  has  been  devised  to  change  unsaturated  oils 
into  saturated  oils  or  fats  on  a  commercial  scale.  This  process 
which  makes  a  fat  out  of  an  oil  depends  on  the  use  of  nickel 
which  acts  "catalytically"  to  cause  hydrogen  gas  to  combine  with 
the  heated  oil.  Thus  olein  can  be  converted  into  stearin.  Solid 
edible  fats  can  be  made  in  this  way  from  cottonseed  oil,  from 
fish  oils  and  many  other  oils. 

Many  oils  when  first  extracted  are  brown  in  color  and  have 
undesirable  odors.  The  oil  can  be  refined  by  treatment  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  caustic  soda,  or  by  filtration  through  fuller's 
earth,  or  by  agitation  with  steam  and  air,  so  that  the  resulting 
oil  is  only  slightly  colored.  The  caustic  soda  treatment  removes 
the  small  amount  of  free  fatty  acids  which  is  often  present  in 
crude  or  rancid  oils.  Refining  also  improves  the  odor  and  keep- 
ing qualities  of  the  oil. 

VEGETABLE  OILS. 

Many  of  the  vegetable  oils  are  semi-drying  or  drying  oils. 
Only  the  non-drying  oils  are  satisfactory  for  lubricants  as  the 
other  oils  tend  to  gum  or  thicken.  The  chief  vegetable  oils  used 
in  lubrication  are  rape  oil,  castor  oil  and  olive  oil. 

Castor  Oil. — This  pale  green  oil  is  extracted  from  the  seed  of 
the  castor  oil  plant.  It  has  a  higher  viscosity  and  holds  its  vis- 
cosity better  under  heat  than  any  other  fatty  oil.  It  has  the 
highest  specific  gravity  of  any  of  the  usual  fatty  oils,  but  blown 
oils  and  rosin  oils  may  have  as  high  specific  gravity.  It  consists 
largely  of  the  glyceride  of  ricinoleic  acid  which  differs  from  most 
fatty  acids  in  having  an  extra  oxygen  atom.  Castor  oil  unites 


AN  I  MAI,  'AND  VEGETABLE   QIl^S  145 

readily  with  sulphuric  acid  to  form  soluble  castor  oil  or  Turkey 
red  oil.  -The  saponification  number  is  low.  The  poorer  grades 
have  a  nauseous  odor  and  taste.  Commercial  castor  oil  contains 
from  i  to  14  per  cent,  of  free  fatty  acids.  Not  over  3  per  cent, 
should  be  present. 

Castor  oil  is  the  only  important  oil  readily  soluble  in  cold 
alcohol.  The  presence  of  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  other  oils  in 
castor  oil  can  be  detected  by  shaking  one  volume  of  oil  with  five 
volumes,  of  ordinary  95  per  cent,  alcohol  at  room  temperature, 
failure  to  form  a  clear  solution  shows  the  presence  of  other  oils. 

Castor  oil  has  been  widely  used  for  lubricating  heavy,  quick- 
moving  machinery,  but  the  high  price  of  this  oil  and  the  intro- 
duction of  suitable  heavy  mineral  oils  has  largely  supplanted  its 
use  for  this  purpose.  Castor  oil  is  often  used  for  compounding 
with  mineral  oils,  but  trouble  often  results  from  failure  of  the 
castor  oil  to  remain  in  solution  in  the  mineral  oil.  Separation  of 
the  castor  oil  from  the  mineral  oil  can  be  prevented  by  using  some 
other  fixed  oil  along  with  the  castor  oil. 

Corn  Oil  (Maize  Oil). — This  is  an  important  semi-drying  oil 
which  may  at  times  find  its  way  into  lubricants,  particularly  by 
addition  to  lard  oil  and  other  oils.  Such  addition  is  undesirable. 

Cottonseed  Oil. — This  is  an  important  semi-drying  oil.  It  is 
not  much  used  for  lubrication  on  account  of  its  gumming  tendency, 
but  it  has  been  unwisely  recommended  for  use  in  compounding 
cylinder  oils.  It  is  often  used  to  adulterate  other  oils.  Its  pres- 
ence can  be  detected  by  the  Halphen  test  or  by  the  Bechi  test. 
(See  Index.) 

Linseed  Oil. — This  is  the  most  important  of  the  drying  oils.  It 
is  not  used  in  lubrication,  but  finds  its  chief  uses  in  paints,  var- 
nishes and  soaps.  Its  drying  properties  are  increased  by  boiling 
the  oil  with  lead  or  manganese  oxides  previous  to  use  in  paints 
and  varnishes.  This  "boiled  oil"  has  a  higher  specific  gravity 
and  a  lower  iodine  number  than  the  raw  oil.  The  raw  oil  has  a 
higher  specific  gravity  and  a  higher  iodine  number  than  any  oil 
that  is  likely  to  be  used  to  adulterate  it.  The  chief  adulterants 
are  cottonseed  oil,  corn  oil,  soy-bean  oil,  fish  oils  and  rosin  oils. 


146  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Olive  Oil. — This  non-drying  oil  is  pressed  from  the  pulp  of  the 
olive  fruit.  The  poorer  qualities  only  are  used  for  lubrication 
as  the  better  grades  are  too  expensive.  The  oil  is  greenish  in 
color  and  may  have  from  2  per  cent,  to  25  per  cent,  of  free  fatty 
acids.  Olive  oil  for  lubrication  should  have  less  than  4  per  cent, 
of  free  fatty  acids  and  should  be  clear  showing  absence  of  water 
and  mucilaginous  matter.  It  should  be  fluid  at  40°  F.  and  above. 
Owing  to  its  high  price  the  oil  is  very  liable  to  adulteration  with 
peanut  oil  and  cottonseed  oil. 

The  presence  of  olive  oil  can  be  shown  by  the  Elaidin  test 
which  is  carried  out  as  follows :  Dissolve  a  very  little  mercury 
in  a  little  cold  concentrated  nitric  acid.  Ten  drops  of  this  solu- 
tion are  added  to  15  cc.  of  the  oil  in  a  test  tube  and  stirred.  After 
standing  one  hour  avhard,  impenetrable  yellow  mass  indicates 
olive  oil.  Lard  oil  shows  a  fairly  hard  mass  by  this  test,  other  oils 
show  softer,  buttery  masses. 

Palm  Oil. — This  oil  is  a  yellow  or  orange  colored  solid  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures.  For  lubrication,  the  oil  must  be  tested  for 
free  acid  as  free  fatty  acids  form  easily,  over  50  per  cent,  being 
present  at  times.  In  crude  samples  several  per  cent,  of  dirt, 
trash  and  water  may  be  present.  These  can  be  removed  by 
melting  and  straining.  While  palm  oil  is  used  considerably 
abroad,  notably  in  England  for  railway  carriage  greases,  its  use 
as  a  lubricant  has  never  been  so  great  in  the  United  States.  For 
grease  making,  a  fairly  high  percentage  of  free  fatty  acids  is  not 
undesirable  provided  the  grease  is  made  by  converting  the  fatty 
acids  into  a  soap. 

Peanut  Oil  (Arachis  Oil). — This  is  classed  as  a  non-drying  oil 
and  is  sometimes  substituted  for  olive  oil.  While  it  has  been  used 
very  little  as  a  lubricant,  it  does  not  gum  so  much  as  does  rape 
oil,  and  so  owing  to  its  increased  production  in  the  United  States 
it  may  find  some  application  as  a  lubricant. 

Rape  Oil  (Rapeseed  Oil,  Colza  Oil). — This  is  a  pale  yellow  oil 
with  a  characteristic  odor  and  taste.  It  is  a  semi-drying  oil  and 
so  has  some  tendency  to  gum  when  used  as  a  lubricant.  The 
free  fatty  acids  usually  run  from  I  to  6  per  cent.  Sulphuric  acid 


AX  I  MAI,    AND   VEGETABLE   OILS  147 

may  be  present  in  the  refined  oil.  Rape  oil  is  rather  difficult 
to  saponify.  Rape  oil  has  never  had  the  vogue  in  the  United 
States  it  enjoyed  abroad,  except  possibly  for  blending  with  heavy 
mineral  oils  for  use  in  marine  engines.  It  has  a  fairly  high  vis- 
cosity and  so  is  used  to  some  extent  for  compounding  cylinder 
oils.  This  is  particularly  true  of  blown  rape  oil  which  has  an 
exceedingly  high  viscosity  and  a  high  specific  gravity  in  which 
respects  it  resembles  castor  oil. 

Rosin  Oils. — Many  grades  of  these  oils  are  obtained  by  the 
distillation  of  rosin,  the  usual  standard  grades  being  first,  sec- 
ond, third  and  fourth  run  rosin  oils.  The  first  run  oil  is 
thicker,  of  a  lighter  color,  and  contains  more  rosin  acids  than 
the  later  runs.  The  early  runs  are  therefore  more  valuable  for 
grease  making,  e.  g.,  for  axle  grease.  Besides  the  rosin  acids  the 
oils  consist  largely  of  hydrocarbon  oils.  The  iodine  number 
varies  from  around  sixty  for  the  first  run  oil  to  about  twenty 
for  the  last  runs.  The  saponification  number,  which  shows  the 
amount  of  free  acid  and  saponifiable  matter  present,  gives  a  sat- 
isfactory basis  for  the  valuation  of  the  oil  for  grease  making,  the 
oils  with  high  saponification  numbers  being  more  valuable  for 
this  purpose.  First  run  rosin  oils  are  also  known  as  "Hard  Rosin 
Oils,"  the  other  grades  being  known  as  medium  and  soft  rosin 
oils. 

When  heated,  rosin  oils  have  the  odor  of  rosin.  They  flash 
around  320°  F.  and  contain  from  3  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent,  of 
free  acids.  The  specific  gravity  varies  from  0.96  to  1.02.  Crude 
rosin  oils  have  a  fluorescence  or  "bloom"  somewhat  like  mineral 
oils.  The  late  runs  of  rosin  oil  may  be  refined  by  sulphuric  acid 
to  yield  a  lighter  colored  oil.  In  this  case  most  of  the  rosin  acids 
are  removed  which  makes  the  oil  more  suitable  for  lubricating 
purposes.  With  the  increased  price  of  rosin,  and  consequently 
of  rosin  oils,  the  chief  reason  for  the  use  of  rosin  oil  for  lubri- 
cating oil  has  been  removed.  The  refined  oils  have  been  used 
widely  as  lubricating  oils,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  mineral 
oils,  but  this  practice  is  not  advisable  as  mineral  oils  fully  answer 
the  same  purpose. 

The  presence  of  rosin  oil  in  fatty  oils  can  be  detected  by  a 
ii 


148  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

decrease  in  the  saponification  number  and  in  the  flash  point,  and 
by  an  increase  in  the  specific  gravity  and  in  the  acid  number.  Its 
presence  in  mineral  oils  is  shown  by  high  acid,  iodine  and  Mau- 
mene  numbers  and  by  the  refractive  index.  Rosin  oils  are  dex- 
tro-rotatory and  so  can  be  detected  by  the  polariscope.  The  most 
satisfactory  method  for  the  detection  of  rosin  or  rosin  oil  in  any 
other  oil  is  by  the  L,iebermann-Storch  reaction!  (See  Index.) 

Soy-bean  Oil. — This  oil  is  now  being  largely  imported  into  the 
United  States  from  Manchuria.  It  is  a  semi-drying  .oil  and  is 
chiefly  used  to  adulterate  linseed  oil,  for  paints  and  for  making 
soap.  It  has  no  use  in  good  lubricating  practice  owing  to  its 
gumming  character.  Several  grades  of  "blown  soy-bean  oil"  are 
now  on  the  market.  The  production  of  soy-bean  oil  in  the  United 
States  is  increasing. 

BLOWN  OILS. 

These  oils  are  prepared  from  rape  oil  and  cottonseed  oil  by 
forcing  a  stream  of  warm  air  through  the  oil  heated  to  over 
200°  F.  A  partial  oxidation  results  yielding  a  product  resem- 
bling castor  oil  in  viscosity  and  gravity.  The  blowing  is  stopped 
when  the  desired  viscosity  and  gravity  are  obtained.  High  tem- 
peratures give  a  dark  oil,  but  the  blowing  is  accomplished  more 
quickly.  The  gravity  may  be  0.960  to  0.970  or  even  higher  and 
the  viscosity  several  times  higher  than  castor  oil.  Since  blown 
rape  oil  is  used  chiefly  for  compounding  with  mineral  oils  to  make 
marine  engine  oils  and  other  engine  and  cylinder  oils  it  is  neces- 
sary to  limit  the  blowing  as  the  higher  viscosity  oils  are  more 
difficultly  soluble  in  mineral  oils.  However,  blown  oils  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  castor  oil  by  the  fact  that  they  are  soluble  in 
light  mineral  oils.  Blown  oils  have  a  nauseous  odor,  a  lowered 
flash  point,  a  lowered  iodine  number  and  an  increased  Maumene 
number  as  compared  with  the  corresponding  raw  oil. 

Commercial  blown  oils  are  also  made  from  soy-bean  oil,  corn 
oil,  castor  oil,  fish  oils,  and  even  from  the  non-drying  sperm  and 
tallow  oils,  although  the  latter  oils  are  very  difficult  to  oxidize  by 
this  process. 

DEGRAS  OILS. 

These  oils  are  usually  by-products  in  treating  leather  as  in  the 


ANIMAI,   AND   VEGETABLE   OILS 


149 


chamoising  process,  or  recovered  wool  grease  from  the  scouring 
of  wool.  In  treating  leather,  various  fish  oils  are  generally  used, 
and  the  leather  is  exposed  to  the  air.  The  oils  as  recovered  from 
the  wash  solutions  by  acid  treatment  contain  oxidized  fatty  acids 
or  fats,  much  free  fatty  acid,  much  unsaponifiable  matter  and  a 
high  water  content.  Degras  is  used  in  making  greases  for  lubri- 
cation, and  the  degras  oil  when  neutral  may  be  used  for  com- 
pounding cylinder  oils. 

On  account  of  the  varying  character  of  true  degras  and  de- 
gras oils,  they  are  open  to  much  adulteration  and  so  should  never 
be  used  except  after  thorough  test  of  each  lot.  The  writer  has 
in  mind  an  "acidless  degras  oil"  for  compounding  cylinder  oil, 
this  degras  oil  being  a  pure  mineral  or  spindle  oil  with  a  degras 
odor. 

TABLE  SHOWING  PROPERTIES  OF  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS. 
(Compiled  from  various  standard  sources). 


vSpecific  gravity 
at  60°  F. 

-S 

IS 

£ 

in 

*« 

<u  s 
It 

Average 
Maumene1 
No.  (°C.) 

y£ 

111 

Average  solidifi- 
cation point  of 
fatty  acids  (°C.)  | 

Permissible  variation 

0.003 

3 

— 

5 

5 

5 

Bone  fat  

0.915 
0.964 

0-923 
0.924 
0.919 

0-935 
0.916 

0-934 
0.930 

0.915 
0.917 
0.924 
0.919 
0.915 
(0.985) 
0.921 
0.925 
0.88o 
0.946 
0.916 
0.922 

192 
182 
190 
194 
196 
196 

195 
190 
191 
196 
190 
197 
193 
174 
20-34 
192 
191 
130 
195 
196 
190 

48  to    55 
82         88 
113       125 
105       112 
74         86 
52         63 
66         77 
171        192 
H5       165 
65      .  75 
80         87 
5°         56 
85         98 
96       103 
(4o         50) 
130       150 

122          135 

81         88 
35         46 
55         57 
120       135 

35 
47 
83 
76 
50 
26 
42 
124 
125 
46 
43 

58 
59 
30 
92 
60 
47 
4i 
4i 
9i 

16 
—14 
16 

—    2 

35 
29 

3 

—  20 

-  6 

—  5 
o 

35 
o 

-  5 

(-5) 

-  5 

0 

35 
24 
—  4 

28 
3 
15 
33 
37 
38 
35 
17 

26 

21 

41 
27 

H 

18 
23 
14 

4i 

23 

Castor  oil  ....        .... 

Corn  (Maize)  oil  
Cottonseed  oil    

Lard 

Linseed  oil  (raw)  

Olive  oil  

Pal  in  QJJ 

Peanut  (Arachis)  oil. 
Rape  (Colza)  oil  

Seal  oil  ....    

Tallow  
Tallow  oil              

Whale  oil  

I5O  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

ANIMAL  OILS. 

The  oils  and  fats  from  land  animals  constitute  the  most  val- 
uable of  the  fixed  oils  for  lubricating  purposes. 

Bone  Fat  and  Bone  Oil. — Bone  fat  usually  contains  about  i 
per  cent,  of  ash  and  a  large  percentage  of  free  fatty  acids.  Its 
general  properties  are  somewhat  similar  to  tallow.  Bone  oil, 
from  bone  fat,  is  somewhat  like  neatsfoot  oil.  It  has  a  low 
cold  test  and  is  a  good  lubricant  if  the  fatty  acids  are  removed. 

Horse  Oil. — This  oil  is  used  to  mix  with  or  adulterate  other 
oils  used  in  lubrication  and  for  manufacturing  lubricating  greases 
and  soaps. 

Lard. — This  is  the  solid,  rendered  fat  from  pigs.  It  is  chiefly 
used  for  edible  purposes  and  for  preparing  lard  oil. 

Lard  Oil. — This  oil  is  prepared  from  lard  somewhat  as  tallow 
oil  is  prepared  from  tallow.  It  is  used  for  general  lubrication, 
and  is  often  seriously  adulterated  with  light  petrojeum  oils  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  ultimate  consumer.  There  are  several  grades 
of  lard  oil,  depending  on  the  grade  of  lard  used  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  pressing.  The  cold  test  varies  considerably.  The  best 
grades  have  very  little  odor.  Only  the  better  grades  should  be 
used  for  compounding. 

Menhaden  Oil. — This  is  a  fish  oil  with  drying  properties.  It  is 
used  in  paints  and  soaps,  but  is  not  generally  suitable  for  lubri- 
cation. 

Neatsfoot  Oil. — This  oil  consists  largely  of  olein  and  does  not 
become  rancid  easily.  It  is  rendered  from  the  feet  of  cattle.  It 
is  used  as  a  lubricant,  either  alone  or  in  mixtures  with  mineral 
oils  similar  to  the  use  of  tallow  oil.  It  is  a  valuable  oil  for  lubri- 
cation. 

Porpoise  Oil. — There  are  two  varieties,  the  body  oil  and  the 
jaw  oil,  which  differ  considerably  in  character.  They  are  used 
for  lubricating  watches  and  other  delicate  machinery.  The  two 
varieties  of  dolphin  or  black  fish  oil  find  a  similar  use. 

Seal  Oil. — This  oil  is  prepared  from  the  blubber  of  the  seal. 
It  is  not  much  used  for  lubrication  as  it  has  drying  properties. 


ANIMAL   AND  VEGETABLE   OILS  151 

Sperm  Oil. — This  is  not  a  true  oil,  but  a  liquid  wax.  It  has 
the  lowest  specific  gravity  of  the  fixed  oils  and  a  low  saponifica- 
tion  number.  It  contains  no  glycerine.  While  its  viscosity  is  not 
so  high  as  that  of  some  other  oils,  it  keeps  its  viscosity  unusually 
well  at  elevated  temperatures.  It  is  excellent  for  light  running 
machinery,  does  not  corrode,  or  turn  rancid  or  gum. 

Tallows. — Beef  tallow  is  rendered  from  the  fat  of  cattle,  mutton 
tallow  from  the  fat  of  sheep  and  goats.  Tallow  varies  consid- 
erably in  melting  point  and  other  properties,  depending  on  the 
animal  from  which  it  comes,  the  temperature  of  rendering,  etc. 
Soft  tallows  may  melt  as  low  as  36°  C.  while  hard  tallows  may 
melt  as  high  as  50°  C.  The  free  fatty  acids  usually  range  from 
almost  none  up  to  6  per  cent.  Tallow  consists  chiefly  of  olein 
and  stearin.  Tallows  are  valued  by  the  melting  or  solidification 
point,  the  high-melting  point  tallows  being  the  more  valuable. 
Tallow  is  used  directly  as  a  lubricant  in  tallow  greases,  or  for 
soap-making,  or  for  making  tallow-soap  greases. 

Many  garbage  greases,  yellow  greases,  etc.,  are  sold  for  pur- 
poses similar  to  tallow.  These  are  valued  by  their  melting  point 
and  the  amount  of  saponifiable  matter  they  contain.  They  usu- 
ally contain  fairly  large  amounts  of  unsaponifiable  matter. 

Tallow  Oil. — When  tallow  is  melted  and  then  allowed  to  remain 
for  some  time  at  approximately  85°  F.,  part  of  the  stearin  crys- 
tallizes out  and  can  be  removed  from  the  oil  by  filter  pressing. 
The  stearin  is  used  for  candle  and  soap  making,  while  the  "tallow 
oil"  is  used  for  lubrication  and  other  purposes.  The  relatively 
cheaper  mineral  oils  have  largely  displaced  tallow  oil  as  a  lubri- 
cating oil,  except  that  up  to  20  per  cent,  of  tallow  oil  is  still 
added  to  mineral  oils  for  steam  cylinder  lubrication.  For  this 
purpose  the  tallow  oil  should  be  "acidless"  by  actual  test. 

Whale  Oil. — There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  this  oil  from 
the  blubber  of  the  whale.  Only  the  best  grades  are  suitable  for 
lubrication.  In  common  with  most  marine  animal  oils,  the  odor 
may  be  undesirable. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


METHODS  OF  TESTING  FATTY  OILS. 

A.  PHYSICAL  METHODS. 

The  Specific  Gravity  of  fixed  oils  is  characteristic  for  each  oil 
and  varies  only  within  narrow  limits.  Any  marked  variation 
from  the  usual  specific  gravity  is  an  indication  of  adulteration. 
The  gravity  can  be  taken  with  a  hydrometer,  but  as  considerable 
accuracy  is  necessary  it  is  better  to  use  a  pycnometer  or  a  West- 
phal  balance,  as  explained  under  mineral  oils.  If  the  tempera- 
ture is  not  at  60°  F.  a  correction  of  0.00038  is  made  for  each 
degree  Fahrenheit  the  temperature  is  found  to  differ  from  60° 
F.  (For  each  degree  Centigrade  the  correction  is  0.00068.)  The 
correction  is  to  be  added  if  the  observed  temperature  is  above 
60°  F.  (15.56°  C.) 

The  Solidification  Point  of  fixed  oils  is  very  important  if  the 
oil  is  used  for  lubricating  purposes.  It  is  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  cold  test  or  pour  test  for  mineral  oils.  This  is 
sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  purposes.  The  melting  point 
is  usually  several  degrees  higher  than  the  solidification  point, 
which  varies  considerably  for  the  same  oil.  Thus  tallows  vary 
owing  to  a  variation  in  the  amount  of  stearin  present.  The  oil 
does  not  freeze  as  a  whole,  but  is  solidified  by  the  crystallizing 
out  of  some  constituent  of  the  oil,  usually  stearin  or  palmitin. 

The  Solidification  Point  of  the  Fatty  Acids  can  be  determined 
in  the  same  way  as  for  the  oils.  A  very  simple  method  for  mak- 
ing the  melting  point  determination  is  to  put  some  of  the  melted 
acids  in  a  capillary  tube  closed  at  one  end,  letting  cool  for  sev- 
eral hours,  fastening  the  tube  with  the  closed  end  opposite  the 
bulb  of  a  thermometer,  immersing  in  a  water  bath  which  is  slowly 
heated,  and  noting  the  temperature  at  which  the  fatty  acids  be- 
come clear. 

The  fatty  acids  for  the  above  test  can  be  prepared  by  saponi- 
fying 50  grams  of  the  oil  with  about  50  cc.  of  30  per  cent,  caustic 
soda  solution  to  which  about  50  cc.  of  alcohol  has  been  added. 


METHODS   OF   TESTING   FATTY   OILS  153 

The  mixture  is  evaporated  to  dryness  over  a  very  low  flame  so 
as  to  prevent  scorching.  The  soap  is  then  dissolved  in  some  600 
cc.  of  water,  and  boiled  for  some  time  after  the  soap  is  completely 
dissolved  to  insure  the  removal  of  the  alcohol.  If  the  solution  is 
not  clear,  or.  great  accuracy  is  desired,  the  solution  is  cooled  and 
the  unsaponifiable  matter  removed  by  shaking  out  with  ether. 
Finally  about  100  cc.  of  20  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the 
hot  soap  solution  to  set  the  fatty  acids  free.  Boil  until  the  fatty 
acids  collect  on  top  of  the  water,  remove  the  fatty  acids  and 
wash  free  of  sulphuric  acid  by  means  of  hot  water.  Heat  the 
acids  in  a  dish  on  the  water  bath  until  clear  and  free  from  water. 
A  determination  of  the  Refractive  Index  of  oils  by  means  of 
the  Abbe  Refractometer  or  the  Zeiss  Butyro-Refractometer  gives 
valuable  data  for  determining  the  purity  and  character  of  an  oil. 
This  determination  is  easily  and  quickly  made,  and  so  is  espe- 
cially valuable  in  the  routine  examination  of  a  large  number  of 
oils.  The  refractive  index  for  any  fixed  oil  varies  only  between 
narrow  limits. 

The  Flash  Point  of  natural  fixed  oils  is  usually  above  500°  F. 
with  the  open  cup.  Only  blowrn  oils,  rosin  oils,  and  sometimes 
neatsfoot  oil  have  lower  flash  tests. 

The  Viscosity  determination  is  of  value  in  certain  cases,  as  with 
blown  oils,  rape  oil,  castor  oil  and  sperm  oil. 

The  approximate  Saybolt  viscosities  of  some  fatty  oils  are  as 
follows : 


IOO°P. 

2IO°F. 

f.1 

255 

04 

.35° 

IO5 

Neatsfoot  oil    

•£lj 
oS 

57 
A(~> 

Tallow  (hard   beef) 

y° 

59 

B.  CHEMICAL  METHODS. 

The  chief  chemical  tests  for  these  oils  are  the  determination 
of  the  saponification  number,  the  iodine  number,  the  Maumene 


154  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

number,  the  amount  of  free  fatty  acid,  and  a  few  other  special 
determinations. 

The  Saponification  Number  (or  Koettstorfer  value)  is  the 
number  of  milligrams  of  caustic  potash  required  to  saponify  I 
gram  of  the  oil  or  fat.  The  number  for  most  oils  varies  around 
190  to  195 ;  that  is,  most  oils  require  from  19.0  to  19.5  per  cent, 
of  caustic  potash  to  saponify  them  completely.  Some  oils,  like 
castor  oil,  rape  oil  and  sperm  oil,  have  much  lower  numbers. 

The  saponification  number  is  determined  as  follows :  Weigh 
2  grams  of  the  oil  or  filtered  fat  into  a  clean  200  cc.  Krlenmeyer 
flask.  Measure  into  the  flask  exactly  25  cc.  of  clear  alcoholic 
potash  (containing  about  40  grams  of  KOH  in  a  liter  of  95  per 
cent,  alcohol).  A  second  flask  is  prepared  at  the  same  time  and 
in  the  same  way  except  that  no  oil  is  added.  Connect  the  flask 
with  a  reflux  condenser  and  boil  on  a  water  bath  for  30  minutes 
or  until  saponification  is  complete.  Cool  and  titrate  with  half- 
normal  acid  (HC1)  using  phenolphthalein  as  indicator.  To  cal- 
culate the  saponification  number,  subtract  the  number  of  cubic 
centimeters  of  half-normal  acid  used  in  the  titration  from  the 
number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  half-normal  acid  used  to  titrate 
the  "blank,"  multiply  the  result  by  28.05  and  divide  by  the  num- 
ber of  grams  of  oil  used. 

A  simple  qualitative  saponification  can  be  carried  out  by 
putting  a  little  of  the  oil  in  a  flask,  adding  a  short  stick  of  caustic 
potash  and  a  small  amount  of  alcohol.  Heat  on  a  water  bath  for 
a  half  hour,  using  a  glass  tube  as  a  reflux  condenser.  Pour 
the  mixture  at  once  into  a  large  beaker  of  water;  a  clear  solution 
indicates  freedom  from  mineral  oils,  a  turbid  solution  indicates 
the  presence  of  mineral  oil  or  rosin  oil. 

Iodine  Number. — This  is  the  most  important  single  determina- 
tion for  detecting  the  character  of  an  oil.  The  Hanus  method 
for  determining  the  iodine  number  is  as  follows :  Weigh  out 
accurately  from  0.12  to  0.25  gram  of  the  oil,  using  the  smaller 
amount  for  drying  oils.  For  fats  or  mineral  oils  from  0.50  to 
i. oo  gram  may  be  used.  The  amount  of  oil  should  be  small 
enough  so  that  not  over  40  per  cent,  of  the  iodine  solution  will 


METHODS   OF   TESTING   FATTY   OILS  155 

be  used  up.  The  oil  can  be  weighed  best  by  difference.  Dissolve 
the  weighed  oil  in  a  250  cc.  glass-stoppered  flask  by  means  of 
10  cc.  of  chloroform.  Now  add  25  cc.  of  the  Hanus  iodine  solu- 
tion. Prepare  a  "blank"  in  the  same  way  with  exactly  the  same 
amount  of  iodine  solution,  draining  the  pipette  carefully  in  each 
case.  Let  stand  with  occasional  shaking  for  30  minutes  without 
exposing  to  strong  light.  At  the  end  of  just  30  minutes  add  10 
cc.  of  15  per  cent,  potassium  iodide  solution,  mix,  add  about  100 
cc.  of  water  and  titrate  with  N/io  sodium  thiosulphate  solution. 
As  the  color  fades  add  a  little  fresh  starch  solution  and  titrate 
slowly  until  the  blue  color  disappears.  The  flask  should  be  well 
shaken  just  before  the  end  of  the  titration. 

Calculate  the  iodine  number  as  follows :  Subtract  the  number 
of  cubic  centimeters  of  the  thiosulphate  solution  required  for  the 
titration  from  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  thiosulphate 
solution  used  to  titrate  the  blank,  multiply  the  result  by  1.27  and 
divide  by  the  amount  of  oil  used. 

The  Hiibl  and  the  Wijs  methods  for  determining  the  iodine 
number  give  approximately  the  same  results  as  the  Hanus 
method.  Mineral  oils  have  a  very  low  iodine  number,  usually 
8  to  1 6,  or  even  higher  for  cracked  oils,  while  fatty  oils  show  a 
range  from  about  35  up  to  200.  The  iodine  number  shows  the 
degree  of  saturation  of  the  oil,  particularly  the  degree  of  satu- 
ration of  the  fatty  acids.  Oils  with  an  iodine  number  much  over 
100  are  not  usually  suitable  for  lubricating  oils  on  account  of 
their  drying  character  which  causes  the  oil  to  gum. 

The  Maumene  Number  is  quickly  and  easily  determined  and 
often  gives  valuable  information.  Fifty  grams  of  the  oil  are 
weighed  into  a  tall  beaker,  the  exact  temperature  of  the  oil  noted, 
and  10  cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  at  the  same  temperature 
are  run  in  gradually  with  stirring.  The  beaker  is  protected  as 
much  as  possible  against  loss  of  heat.  The  stirring  is  continued 
and  the  highest  temperature  noted,  being  careful  to  wait  suffi- 
ciently long  to  be  certain  of  the  highest  temperature.  The  rise 
in  temperature  expressed  in  degrees  Centigrade  is  the  Maumene 
number.  It  is  usually  roughly  in  proportion  to  the  iodine  num- 
ber. It  is  very  important  that  strong  sulphuric  acid,  at  least  96 


156  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

per  cent,  be  used.  Such  an  acid  will  show  a  Maumene  number 
of  about  44  when  tested  with  water  instead  of  with  oil. 

Mineral  oils  usually  give  Maumene  numbers  from  three  to  six. 
Higher  values  indicate  the  addition  of  rosin  or  fatty  oils.  Rosin 
oils  usually  give  numbers  around  30.  Cylinder  oil  stocks  have 
a  Maumene  number  of  four  or  five,  wrhile  compounded  cylinder 
oils  have  a  Maumene  number  from  seven  to  twelve. 

When  the  temperature  is  found  to  rise  much  above  60°  C.  the 
test  should  be  repeated  using  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  pure 
light  mineral  oil  and  the  unknown  oil.  Subtract  two  from  the 
rise  of  temperature  and  multiply  by  two  to  get  the  Maumene 
number. 

Free  Fatty  Acids  are  usually  present  in  varying  amounts  in 
fatty  oils  and  may  cause  serious  corrosion  of  machinery  espe- 
cially in  the  presence  of  water  or  at  elevated  temperatures,  as  in 
steam  cylinder  lubrication.  From  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  free  fatty 
acids  calculated  as  oleic  acid  should  be  about  the  maximum  for 
fatty  oils  for  lubricating  purposes. 

To  determine  the  per  cent,  of  free  fatty  acids,  weigh  out  10 
grams  of  the  oil  into  a  flask,  add  about  60  cc.  of  alcohol,  connect 
the  flask  with  a  dry  reflux  condenser  and  warm  on  a  water-bath 
for  a  few  minutes.  Shake  well,  cool  and  titrate  with  N/5  caustic 
potash  using  phenolphthalein  as  indicator.  The  end-point  is  a 
permanent  pink  color  after  shaking  the  flask  vigorously.  A 
blank  should  be  run  in  the  same  way  and  the  proper  correction 
made  if  the  alcohol  does  not  prove  to  have  been  neutral.  To 
calculate  the  per  cent,  of  "free  oleic  acid"  multiply  the  number 
of  cubic  centimeters  of  N/5  caustic  solution  by  5.64  and  divide 
by  the  number  of  grams  of  oil  used. 

Sometimes  the  fatty  acids  are  reported  as  "acid  number"  which 
is  the  number  of  milligrams  of  KOH  required  to  neutralize  the 
free  acids  in  i  gram  of  the  oil.  This  "acid  number"  can  be  cal- 
culated by  multiplying  the  "free  oleic  acid"  by  2.  (For  other 
methods  for  determining  free  fatty  acids,  see  Index.) 

The  Reichert-Meissl  Number  is  important  for  testing  certain 
oils  which  contain  notable  percentages  of  volatile  fatty  acids 


METHODS   OF  TESTING   FATTY   OILS  157 

soluble  in  water.  Such  oils  as  cocoanut  oil,  palmnut  oil,  porpoise 
oil,  dolphin  jaw  oil,  lard  oil,  blown  oils,  croton  oil  and  butter 
show  characteristically  large  amounts  of  such  fatty  acids  by 
this  test.  The  Reichert-Meissl  number  for  these  oils  is  over  six 
while  for  most  other  oils  the  number  is  one  or  less.  The  Reich- 
ert-Meissl number  is  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  N/io 
caustic  potash  required  to  neutralize  the  volatile,  water-soluble 
fatty  acids  obtained  by  a  standard  procedure  from  5  grams  of 
oil.  See  other  texts  for  method  of  making  the  test  which  is  not 
often  necessary  in  testing  lubricants. 

Color  Tests. — A  large  number  of  color  tests  for  special  oil  have 
been  devised,  but  most  of  these  tests  are  unreliable.  Only  the 
best  of  these  are  given. 

The  Liebermann-Storch  Reaction  is  reliable  for  detecting  rosin 
or  rosin  oils,  especially  in  mineral  oils.  About  2  cc.  of  the  oil 
are  gently  heated  in  a  test  tube  with  4  cc.  of  acetic  anhydride. 
Cool,  filter  so  as  to  remove  the  oil  and  add  to  the  clear  filtrate  I 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid  made  by  mixing  equal  volumes  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  and  water.  If  rosin  is  present  a  fine 
fugitive  violet  color  is  produced  at  once.  Some  animal  oils,  par- 
ticularly fish  oils,  and  a  few  vegetable  oils  may  give  a  similar 
test.  The  quantitative  estimation  of  rosin  or  rosin  oils  is  best 
made  by  Twitchell's  method,  but  this  method  will  not  be  described 
as  the  qualitative  detection  is  usually  sufficient. 

The  Halphen  Test  for  cottonseed  oil  is  a  reliable  color  test 
except  that  cottonseed  oil  which  has  been  heated  to  250°  C.  and 
blown  cottonseed  oil  do  not  give  the  test.  Two  cc.  each  of  the 
oil,  amyl  alcohol,  and  a  I  per  cent,  solution  of  carbon  disulphide 
are  heated  in  a  test  tube  in  a  boiling  water  bath  for  20  to  30 
minutes.  As  much  as  5  per  cent,  of  cottonseed  oil  gives  a  char- 
acteristic deep  red  color.  Fat  from  cattle  which  have  been  fed 
on  cottonseed  meal  may  give  the  test. 

The  Bechi  or  Silver  Nitrate  Test  is  another  characteristic  reac- 
tion for  cottonseed  oil,  although  it  has  the  same  limitations  as  the 
Halphen  test  and  is  not  quite  so  reliable.  It  is  a  very  delicate 
test  showing  as  little  as  5  per  cent,  of  cottonseed  oil.  Make  a  i 


158  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

per  cent,  solution  of  silver  nitrate  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol  free 
from  aldehyde  and  add  about  half  as  much  ether  as  alcohol.  Add 
i  drop  of  nitric  acid  to  a  100  cc.  of  this  solution.  Upon  heating 
10  cc.  of  the  oil  with  about  5  cc.  of  the  above  reagent,  using  a 
test  tube  immersed  in  boiling  water  for  about  20  minutes,  a  dark- 
ening will  be  observed  in  the  presence  of  cottonseed  oil  owing  to 
the  reduction  of  the  silver  nitrate.  The  darkening  is  proportional 
to  the  amount  of  cottonseed  oil  present.  Rancid  oils  or  animal 
oils  rendered  at  too  high  a  temperature  may  also  give  the  reac- 
tion. The  test  is  more  reliable  if  carried  out  on  the  separated 
fatty  acids  instead  of  on  the  oil. 

REFERENCES. 

Allen :     Commercial  Organic  Analysis,  4th  Ed.,  Vol.  II  and  III. 
Gill:    A  Short  Handbook  of  Oil  Analysis. 
Lewkovitch :     Chemical   Technology  of  Oils,  Fats  and   Waxes,  4th   Ed., 

3  volumes,  1909. 

Lunge:    Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis,  Vol.  Ill,  Pt.  I,  1914. 
Thorpe  :    Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry. 
"Official  Methods  of  Analysis,"  Bur.  of  Chem.  Bull.  No.  107   (Revised), 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  FATTY  OILS. 

Castor  Oil. — (Navy  Department,  Nov.  i,  1915.*)  Castor  oil 
should  present  a  pale,  yellowish,  or  almost  colorless,  transparent 
appearance;  should  have  at  ordinary  temperatures  a  thick,  slug- 
gish, viscous  consistency,  and  should  give  off  at  first  a  faint,  mild 
odor,  becoming  soon  after  slightly  acrid  and  offensive. 

The  castor  oil  furnished  under  this  specification  will  meet  the 
following  requirements : 

(a)  Specific  gravity  at  60°  F.,  0.960  to  0.965. 

(b)  Have  a  saponification  number  between  179  and  184. 

(c)  Must  be  soluble  in  equal  volume  of  alcohol  and  in  all 

proportions  in  absolute  alcohol  or  glacial  acetic  acid. 

(d)  Must  be  insoluble  in  petroleum  ether  at  a  temperature 

of  60°  F.  or  below.  (Supplied  in  specified  cans  and 
cases.) 

Cottonseed  Oil. — (Navy  Department,  May  i,  1916.)  To  be 
thoroughly  refined  winter-pressed  cottonseed  oil;  to  stand  a  5- 
hour  cold  test.  Must  be  sweet,  neutral  in  flavor  and  odor,  and 
free  from  rancidity.  To  have  a  refractive  index  at  25°  C.  of  not 
less  than  1.47  and  not  more  than  1.4725,  and  an  iodine  number 
of  not  less  than  104  and  not  to  exceed  no.  (Packed  in  specified 
i -gallon  cans,  labelled,  and  packed  eight  cans  per  case.) 

Each  bid  is  submitted  with  the  distinct  understanding  that  the 
cottonseed  oil  is  guaranteed  to  keep  good  in  any  climate  for  a 
period  of  one  year  after  date  of  delivery  at  the  navy  yard. 

Fish  Oil. —  (Navy  Department,  Aug.  i,  1914.)  To  be  strictly 
pure  winter-strained,  bleached,  air-blown  menhaden  fish  oil,  free 
from  adulteration  of  any  kind. 

The  oil  should  show  upon  examination: 


Maximum 

Minimum 

Specific  gravity  ... 

Iodine  number  (  Haiius  )  •  • 

•935 
•£e 

0.930 

Acid,  number  .     . 

loo 
6 

14O 

*  All  Navy  Department  specifications  are  from  the  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts. 


l6o  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

The  oil  when  poured  on  a  glass  plate  and  allowed  to  drain  and 
dry  in  a  vertical  position,  guarded  from  dust  and  exposure  to 
weather,  shall  be  practically  free  from  tack  in  less  than  75  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  70°  F.  When  chilled,  the  oil  shall  flow  at 
temperatures  as  low  as  32°  F. 

To  be  purchased  by  the  commercial  gallon ;  to  be  inspected  by 
weight  and  the  number  of  gallons  to  be  determined  at  the  rate  of 
7^2  pounds  of  oil  per  gallon.  (Delivered  in  barrels.) 

Lard  Oil  (For  Pipe  Cutting  and  Threading  Purposes). —  (Navy 
Department,  Oct.  I,  1915.)  Shall  be  a  clear,  light  yellow  lard  oil 
of  good  quality,  free  from  rancidity  or  adulteration.  It  shall  not 
contain  more  free  fatty  acid  than  5  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid. 

The  specific  gravity  at  15°  C.  shall  be  not  lower  than  90  per 
cent,  or  higher  than  92  per  cent.  It  shall  flow  at  8°  C.  or  below. 
Its  viscosity  at  38°  C.  shall  not  exceed  220  seconds  in  a  Saybolt 
viscosimeter  having  a  water  rate  of  30  seconds  at  15°  C.  (De- 
liveries in  5o-gallo.n  casks.) 

Lard  Oil. — (War  Department,  Depot  Quartermaster,  New  York 
City,  Feb.  i,  1909.)  Must  be  a  pure  lard  oil  of  the  best  quality. 

Must  have  a  specific  gravity  between  0.910  and  0.916  at  60°  F. 

Must  not  solidify  above  42°  F. 

When  saponified  with  alcoholic  caustic  potash  the  resulting 
soap  must  be  completely  soluble  in  water  showing  no  turbidity. 

Must  not  show  more  acidity  than  the  equivalent  of  2  per  cent, 
oleic  acid. 

Must  not  show  an  orange  or  reddish-brown  color  when  5  cc. 
of  oil  is  shaken  thoroughly  with  5  cc.  of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.37) 
and  allowed  to  stand  24  hours.  (A  check  test  should  be  made  at 
the  same  time  with  an  oil  of  known  purity.) 

Must  be  no  color  change  when  5  cc.  of  oil  is  shaken  thoroughly 
in  a  test  tube  with  5  cc.  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  silver  nitrate 
(made  by  dissolving  o.i  gram  of  silver  nitrate  in  10  cc.  of  pure 
95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  adding  2  drops  of  nitric  acid),  and  the 
mixture  heated  for  five  minutes  in  a  water  bath. 

Quart  samples  must  be  submitted  with  bid. 

Lard  Oil. — (Norfolk  &  Western  Railway,  Motive  Power  Dept, 
Roanoke,  Va.,  Feb.  27,  1912.)  Two  grades  of  lard  oil,  known 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  FATTY   OILS  l6l 

iii  the  market  as  extra  (or  prime),  and  extra  No.  I  will  be 
purchased. 

When  the  shipment  is  received  a  sample  will  be  taken  from 
any  barrel  at  random,  and  the  oil  accepted  or  rejected  on  this 
test.  The  right  will  be  reserved,  however,  to  inspect  any  and  all 
barrels. 

Extra  lard  oil  will  not  be  accepted  which : 

1.  Contains  mixtures  of  other  oils. 

2.  Contains  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  free  acid. 

3.  Shows  a  discoloration  with  the  silver  nitrate  test. 

4.  Has  a  cold  test  above  45°  F.  between  Oct.  i  and  April  I. 
Extra  No.  i  lard  oil  will  not  be  accepted  which : 

1.  Contains  mixtures  of  other  oils. 

2.  Contains  more  than  12  per  cent,  free  acid. 

3.  Has  a  cold  test  above  45°  F.  between  Oct.  i  and  April  i. 
The  standard  purity  test  will  be  Maumene  test,  or  rise  of  tem- 
perature with  sulphuric  acid.     Should  any  doubt  arise,  however, 
the  right  to  use  any  test,  such  as  specific  gravity,  refractive  in- 
dex, iodine  absorption,  or  Halphen's  test,  is  reserved.     (Methods 
specified  for  free  acid,  for  the  silver  nitrate  test,  and  for  the  cold 
test.) 

Lard  Oil. —  ( Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Office  Gen.  Supt.  of  Motive 
Power,  April  14,  1904.)  Two  grades  of  lard  oil,  known  in 
market  as  "Extra"  and  "Extra  No.  i,"  will  be  used,  the  former 
principally  for  burning  and  the  latter  as  a  lubricant. 

The  material  desired  under  this  specification  is  oil  from  the  lard 
of  corn  fed  hogs,  unmixed  with  other  oils,  and  containing  the 
least  possible  amount  of  free  acid.  Also  from  Oct.  i  to  May  I 
it  should  show  a  cold  test  not  higher  than  40°  F.  Oil  from  lard 
of  "mast"  or  distillery  fed  hogs  does  not  give  good  results  in 
service,  and  should  never  be  sent.  Also  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  oil  made  from  fresh  lard.  Old  lard  gives  an  oil  that 
does  not  burn  well,  and  also  gums  badly  as  a  lubricant.  The  use 
of  the  so-called  neatsfoot  stock,  either  alone  or  as  an  admix- 
ture in  making  the  "Extra  No.  i"  grade,  is  not  recommended. 
Neatsfoot  oil  is  used  by  the  railroad  company  when  the  price 
will  admit,  but  it  is  preferred  to  have  it  unmixed. 


l62  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Shipments  must  be  made  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  order 
is  placed.  Also  shipments  received  at  any  shop  after  Oct.  I  will 
be  subjected  to  the  cold  test  and  rejected  if  they  fail,  unless  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  shipment  has  been  more  than  a  week  in 
transit. 

Shipments  of  the  "Extra"  grade  will  not  be  accepted  which : 

1.  Contain  admixture  of  any  other  oils. 

2.  Contain  more  free  acid  than  is  neutralized  by  4  cc.  of 

alkali  as  described  in  the  printed  method.     (See  un- 
der tallow  oil  for  P.  R.  R.) 

3.  Show  a  cold  test  above  45°  F.  from  Oct.  I  to  May  i. 

4.  Show  coloration  when  tested  with  nitrate  of  silver  as 

described  below. 

Shipments  of  "Extra  No.  i"  grade  will  not  be  accepted,  which: 

1.  Contain  admixtures  of  any  other  oils. 

2.  Contain  more  free  acid  than  is  neutralized  by  20  cc.  of 

alkali  as  described  in  the  printed  method. 

3.  Show  a  cold  test  above  45°  F.  from  Oct.  i  to  May  i. 

The  cold  test  and  the  amount  of  free  acid  must  be  determined 
in  accordance  with  Pennsylvania  Railroad  standard  methods. 

The  nitrate  of  silver  test  is  as  follows :  Have  ready  a  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  in  alcohol  and  ether,  made  on  the  following 
formula : 


Ether  

After  the  ingredients  are  mixed  and  dissolved,  allow  the  solu- 
tion to  stand  in  the  sun  or  in  diffused  light  until  it  has  become 
perfectly  clear;  it  is  then  ready  for  use  and  should  be  kept  in  a 
dimly  lighted  place  and  tightly  corked. 

Into  a  50  cc.  test  tube,  put  10  cc.  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  (which 
should  have  been  previously  filtered  through  washed  filter  paper), 
and  5  cc.  of  the  above  solution,  shake  thoroughly  and  heat  in  a 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  FATTY   OILS  163 

vessel  of  boiling  water  15  minutes  with  occasional  shaking.    Sat- 
isfactory oil  shows  no  change  of  color  under  this  test. 

Shippers  must  pay  freight  charges  both  ways  on  rejected  ma- 
terial. 

Lard  Oil. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Motive  Power  Dept., 
July  7,  1915.)  Lard  oil  will  be  obtained  in  two  grades — No.  I 
and  No.  2. 

Xo.  i.    This  grade  will  be  used  chiefly  for  burning. 

It  must  be  light  yellow  in  color  and  contain  no  other  oil 
mixture  or  sediment  of  any  kind. 

It  must  have  gravity  of  between  23°  and  24°  Be.,  at  60° 
F.,  and  not  show  on  titration  more  than  3  per  cent,  free  fat 
acid. 

No.  2.  This  grade  will  be  used  about  shops  on  turret  lathes, 
cutting  threads,  staybolt  cutters,  etc. 

It  may  be  reddish  in  appearance,  but  preference  will  be 
given  to  oils  that  are  lighter  in  color. 

It  must  contain  no  mixture  with  other  oil  than  lard,  or 
more  than  a  trace  of  sediment.  Gravity  approximately  as 
above  defined  for  No.  I  grade. 

On  titration  it  must  not  show  more  than  15  per  cent,  free 
fat  acid. 

Such  tests  will  be  applied  to  either  of  above  grades  as  will 
satisfy  the  inspector  that  no  other  oils  than  lard  are  contained  in 
admixture  with  the  samples  submitted. 

Shipments  which  do  not  conform  to  this  specification  will  be 
rejected.  In  cases  of  rejection  the  materials  will  be  held  for 
two  weeks  from  the  date  of  test.  If  by  the  end  of  that  period 
the  manufacturers  have  not  given  shipping  directions,  it  will  be 
returned  to  them  at  their  risk,  they  paying  freight  both  ways. 

Linseed  Oil  (Raw).— (Navy  Dept.,  Aug.  2,  1915.)  Raw  linseed 
oil  shall  be  strictly  pure,  well-settled  oil,  perfectly  clear  and  free 
from  foots. 

The  oil  shall  show  upon  examination : 
12 


i64 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


Maximum 
Per  cent. 

Minimum 
Per  cent. 

Loss  on  heating  one-half  hour  at  103  to  io5°C. 

0.2 

0-937 
190. 
192. 

3- 
1.4805 

i-5 

0.932 
I78. 
I89. 

1.479 

The  oil  when  flowed  on  a  glass  plate,  which  is  held  in  a  posi- 
tion inclined  30°  to  the  vertical,  shall  dry  practically  free  from 
tackiness  in  75  hours  at  a  temperature  of  60°  to  80°  F. 

To  be  purchased  by  the  commercial  gallon  and  inspected  by 
weight.  The  number  of  gallons  to  be  determined  at  the  rate  of 
7/^  pounds  of  oil  to  the  gallon.  (Detailed  specifications  given  for 
cans,  packing  and  method  of  inspection.) 

Linseed  Oil  (Raw).— (War  Dept.,  Office  of  the  Depot  Quarter- 
master, New  York  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  Must  be  absolutely  pure, 
well  settled  oil  of  best  quality,  must  be  perfectly  clear  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60°  F.  and  not  show  a  loss  of  over  2  per  cent,  when 
heated  at  212°  F.,  or  show  any  deposit  of  "foots"  after  being 
heated  to  this  temperature.  The  specific  gravity  must  be  be- 
tween 0.932  and  0.937  at  60°  F. 

Must  not  have  a  flash  point  below  470°  F. 

Must  give  a  reddish-brown  clot  when  20  cc.  of  oil  is  treated 
with  i  cc.  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 

Quart  sample  must  be  submitted  with  bid. 

Linseed  Oil  (Boiled). — (Navy  Dept.,  June  i,  1916.)  Boiled 
linseed  oil  shall  be  strictly  pure  boiled  oil  of  high  grade,  'made 
wholly  by  heating  pure  linseed  oil  to  over  350°  F.  with  oxides  of 
lead  and  manganese  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  secure  a 
proper  combination  of  the  constituents  and  shall  be  properly 
clarified  by  settling  or  other  suitable  treatment.  Evidence  of -the  -, 
presence  of  any  matter  not  resulting  solely  from  the  combination 
of  the  linseed  oil  with  the  oxides  of  lead  and  manganese  will  be 
considered  grounds  for  rejection. 

The  oil  shall  upon  examination  show : 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  FATTY   OILS  165 


Unsaponifiable  matter  . . . 

Lead  oxide  (PbO) 

Manganese  oxide  ( MnO ) 

Iodine  No.   (Hanus) 

Specific  gravity  at  6o°F.  • 


Not  more  than      1.5     per  cent. 
Not  less  than        0.20  per  cent. 
Not  less  than        0.04  per  cent. 
Not  less  than    178. 
Not  less  than        0.938. 


The  oil  shall  give  no  appreciable  loss  at  212°  F.  in  a  current  of 
hydrogen. 

The  oil  when  flowed  on  a  glass  plate  held  in  a  position  inclined 
30°  to  the  vertical,  shall  dry  practically  free  from  tackiness  in 
12  hours  at  a  temperature  of  60°  to  80°  F.  (Method  of  packing 
and  inspection  by  weight  given  in  detail.) 

Linseed  Oil  (Boiled). — (War  Dept.,  Depot  Quartermaster's 
Office,  New  Y6rk  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  Must  be  absolutely  pure 
kettle  boiled  oil  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  film  left  after  flowing 
the  oil  over  glass  and  allowing  it  to  drain  in  a  vertical  position 
must  dry  free  from  tackiness  in  12  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
70°  F. 

The  specific  gravity  must  be  between  0.934  and  0.940  at  60°  F. 

Must  not  have  a  flash  point  below  470°  F. 

Must  show  a  firm  clot  when  20  cc.  of  oil  is  treated  with  I  cc. 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  on  standing  no  appreciable 
amount  of  scum  should  form  on  top  of  oil. 

Must  not  show  a  fugitive  violet  color  with  2  cc.  of  oil  shaken 
with  5  cc.  of  acetic  anhydride  at  a  gentle  heat;  and  after  cooling 
the  acetic  anhydride  is  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  pipette  and  a 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid  (specific  gravity  1.53)  added. 

Neatsfoot  Oil. — (Navy  Dept.,  Jan.  2,  1917.)  Neatsfoot  oil 
must  be  free  from  admixture  of  other  oils,  and  must  not  contain 
more  acidity  than  the  equivalent  of  2  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid. 

It  must  have  a  cold  test  below  25°  C.,  as  determined  in  the 
following  manner:  .  A  couple  of  ounces  of  the  oil  will  be  put  in 
a  4-ounce  sample  bottle  and  a  thermometer  placed  in  it.  The  oil 
will  then  be  frozen,  using  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  if 
necessary.  \Yhen  the  oil  has  become  hard  the  bottle  will  be  re- 


l66  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

moved  from  the  freezing  mixture  and  the  oil  allowed  to  soften, 
being  stirred  and  thoroughly  mixed  at  the  same  time  by  means  of 
the  thermometer  until  the  mass  will  run  from  one  end  of  the 
bottle  to  the  other.  The  reading  of  the  thermometer  at  this 
moment  will  be  taken  as  the  cold  test  of  the  oil. 

Before  acceptance  the  oil  will  be  inspected.  Samples  of  each 
lot  will  be  taken  at  random,  the  samples  well  mixed  together  in 
a  clean  vessel,  and  the  sample  for  test  taken  from  this  mixture. 
Should  the  mixture  be  found  to  contain  any  impurities  or  adul- 
terations, the  whole  delivery  of  oil  it  represents  will  be  rejected, 
and  it  is  to  be  removed  by  the  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Each  delivery  will  be  considered  a  lot  by  itself  and  each  lot 
will  be  inspected  and  accepted  or  rejected  as  it  passes  or  fails 
to  pass  the  test  required.  No  second  test  of  any  lot  rejected  will 
be  permitted.  (Delivery  to  be  made  in  specified  cans  and  cases. 
Part  of  cans  will  be  weighed  full  and  empty.) 

Sperm  Oil. —  (Navy  Dept.,  Oct.  2,  1916.)  Must  be  pure  winter 
strained  bleached  sperm  oil,  free  from  admixture  or  adulteration 
with  animal,  mineral,  vegetable,  or  other  fish  oil,  grease,  lard,  or 
tallow,  or  any  other  adulterant. 

The  specific  gravity  must  be  between  0.875  and  0.885.  The 
flash  test  of  the  oil  in  open  cup  must  not  be  under  440°  F.  The 
oil  must  show  less  acidity  specifically  than  the  equivalent  of  0.25 
per  cent,  of  oleic  acid.  To  be  purchased  and  inspected  by  weight  ; 
the  number  of  pounds  per  gallon  to  be  determined  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  oil  at  60°  F.  multiplied  by  8.33  pounds,  the  weight 
of  a  gallon  (231  cubic  inches)  of  distilled  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature. 

(Method  of  inspection,  sampling,  weighing  and  rejection  sub- 
stantially as  given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs  under  neatsfoot 
oil  above.  (Packed  in  white  oak  casks.) 

Sperm  Oil  (Natural).— (War  Dept.,  Office  Depot  Quarter- 
master, New  York  City,  January,  1915.)  Must  be  absolutely 
pure  natural  winter  sperm  oil  of  best  quality  and  must  conform 
to  the  following  tests : 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  FATTY   OILS  167 


Specific  gravity 
Saponification  value 

Iodine  value 

Maumene"  test 

Color 

Odor. 

Flash 

Cold  test 


0.875-0.884  at  6o°F. 
123  -  147. 

82  -  85. 

8i°-  85°F. 
Light  straw. 
Slight  and  sweet. 
Must  not  flash  below  48s°F. 
Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  38°  F. 


Quart  samples  must  be  submitted  with  bid. 

Sperm  Oil  (Bleached).— (War  Dept.,  Office  Depot  Quarter- 
master, New  York  City,  January,  1915.)  (Specifications  as  for 
sperm  oil,  natural,  except  that  color  is  "pale  yellow,"  odor 
"none,"  flash  "not  below  500°  F.,"  and  test  for  acidity  "must 
show  less  than  the  equivalent  of  0.25  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid.) 

Tallow. — (Navy  Dept.,  June  I,  1914.)  To  be  a  high-grade 
tallow,  pure  and  refined,  free  from  rancidity,  dirt,  cracklings, 
soap,  or  other  substances  not  properly  belonging  to  tallow. 

To  be  free  from  more  acidity  than  the  equivalent  of  2  per 
cent,  of  oleic  acid,  and  the  mixed  fatty  acids  to  titer  not  less 
than  42°  C. 

Payment  will  be  based  on  net  weight,  and  net  weight  only 
should  be  delivered.  (To  be  delivered  in  specified  soldered  top 
tins,  to  be  boxed  and  marked  as  specified.) 

Tallow. — (Norfolk  &  Western  Railway,  Office  Supt.  of  Motive 
Power,  Roanoke,  Va.,  April  15,  1912.)  The  material  desired 
under  this  specification  should  be  made  from  beef  or  sheep  fat, 
free  from  cottonseed  stearines  and  wool  grease,  and  should  be 
rendered  within  12  hours  after  the  animal  is  killed,  at  a  tem- 
perature not  in  excess  of  250°  F.  It  should  be  as  near  white  in 
color  as  is  possible  to  obtain,  firm,  of  good  odor,  and  free  from 
granulation. 

When  a  shipment  of  this  material  is  received,  a  sample  will 
be  taken  in  such  a  manner  as  will  represent  the  average  condition 
of  the  entire  lot,  and  acceptance  or  rejection  will  be  based  upon 
the  results  of  the  examination  of  this  sample. 

Material  will  not  be  accepted  which  upon  examination  shows : 


l68  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

1.  Dirt  or  crackings  disseminated  through  it  or  in  streaks, 

or  which  has  a  layer  of  dirt  or  cracklings  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cake  or  cakes  more  than  J^  inch  thick. 

2.  An  amount  of  free  acid,  determined  in  accordance  with 

method  outlined  below,  in  excess  of  1.5  per  cent. 

3.  Soap  or  other  substances  not  properly  belonging  to  the 

material,  or  more  than  0.5  per  cent,  of  animal  tissue. 

The  free  acid  is  determined  as  follows :  Take  2  ounces  of 
neutral  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  phenol- 
phthalein  solution.  Heat  to  150°  F.,  then  add  10  grams  of  the 
material.  Shake  the  contents  of  the  flask  until  solution  of  the 
tallow  is  effected,  cool,  and  titrate  with  decinormal  sodium  hy- 
drate until  the  color  of  the  solution  remains  a  permanent  pink. 
From  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  decinormal  solution  re- 
quired (i  cc.  N/io  NaOH  equals  0.0282  gram  oleic  acid)  the  per- 
centage of  free  acid  is  obtained. 

All  material  failing  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  this 
specification  will  be  rejected  and  returned  to  the  shipper,  he 
being  required  to  pay  all  freight  charges  both  ways. 

Tallow. — (Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Office  Gen.  Supt.  Motive 
Power,  Altoona,  Pa.,  April  29,  1913.)  Tallow  according  to  this 
specification  will  be  ordered  in  amounts  as  the  demands  of  the 
service  indicate. 

The  material  desired  under  this  specification  is  a  tallow*  con- 
taining the  least  possible  amount  of  free  acid,  and  ^also  as  free 
as  possible  from  dirt,  "cracklings"  and  fiber. 

To  persons  furnishing  tallow  who  may  not  have  appliances  for 
determining  the  amount  of  free  acid  in  tallow,  it  may  be  said 
that  if  the  fat  is  rendered  within  12  hours  from  the  time  the 
animal  is  killed,  using  a  temperature  of  not  more  than  225°  to 
250°  F.  during  the  rendering,  it  is  believed  that  the  free  acid  in 
the  tallow  will  be  less  than  the  amount  specified.  In  very  warm 
weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  render  the  fat  in  less  than  12  hours 
after  the  animal  is  killed. 

A  shipment  being  received  at  any  point,  a  sample  of  not  less 
than  "fa  pound  must  be  sent  to  the  chief  chemist,  Pennsylvania 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  FATTY   OILS  169 

Railroad,  Altoona,  Pa.,  by  railroad  service,  in  a  "sample  for  test" 
box,  accompanied  by  a  "sample  for  test"  tag  properly  filled  out, 
and  the  tallow  must  not  be  used  until  report  of  test  is  received.  A 
sample  must  be  sent  for  test  from  every  shipment  of  1,000  pounds 
or  less,  and  if  more  than  2,000  pounds  are  in  the  shipment,  three 
samples  must  be  sent,  and  so  on.  These  large  shipments  must  be 
divided  into  parts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  samples,  and  a 
designating  mark  put  on  each  part  and  the  same  mark  on  the 
tag  of  its  sample. 

Shipments  of  tallow  will  not  be  accepted  which : 

1.  On  inspection,  are   found  to   contain  dirt  or  "crack- 

lings" disseminated  through  the  material  in  the  bar- 
rels, or  in  streaks,  or  which  have  a  layer  of  dirt  or 
"cracklings"  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  more  than 
Y%  inch  thick. 

2.  Contain  more  free  acid  than  is  neutralized  by  three  (3) 

cc.  of  alkali  as  described  below. 

3.  Contain  soap  or  other  substances  not  properly  belong- 

ing to  tallow. 

The  amount  of  free  acid  in  tallow  is  determined  as  follows: 
Have  ready  (i)  a  quantity  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  to  which  a  few 
grains  of  carbonate  of  soda  has  been  added,  thoroughly  shake  and 
allow  to  settle;  (2)  a  small  amount  of  turmeric  solution;  (3) 
caustic  potash  solution  of  such  strength  that  31^  cc.  exactly  neu- 
tralizes 5  cc.  of  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  contain- 
ing 49  milligrams  of  H2SO4  per  cubic  centimeter.  Now  weigh  or 
measure  into  any  suitable  closed  vessel,  a  4-ounce  sample  bottle 
for  example,  8.9  grams  of  the  melted  tallow.  Add  about  2  ounces 
of  the  alcohol,  warmed  to  about  150°  F.,  add  a  few  drops  of  the 
turmeric  solution  and  shake  thoroughly.  The  color  becomes 
yellow.  Then  add  from  a  burette  graduated  to  cubic  centimeters, 
the  caustic  potash  solution,  little  at  a  time  with  frequent  shaking, 
until  the  color  changes  to  red,  which  red  color  must  remain  per- 
manent after  the  last  vigorous  shaking.  The  number  of  cubic 
centimeters  used,  shows  whether  the  tallow  stands  test  or  not. 

Ten  cc.  of  melted  tallow  at  100°  F.,  weigh  almost  exactly  8.9 


I7O  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

grams.  In  ordinary  work,  therefore,  it  will  probably  not  be  neces- 
sary to  weigh  the  tallow.  Measurement  with  a  10  cc.  pipette  will 
usually  be  sufficiently  accurate,  provided  the  pipette  is  warmed  to 
about  250°  F.,  and  allowed  to  drain,  the  last  drops  being  blown 
out.  In  case  of  dispute,  however,  the  balance  must  be  used. 

Samples  of  rejected  material  are  usually  held  at  the  laboratory 
one  month  from  date  of  test  report.  Accordingly,  in  case  of  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  results  of  test,  the  shippers  must  make 
claims  for  rehearing,  should  they  desire  to  do  so,  within  that  time. 
Failure  to  raise  a  question  for  one  month  will  be  construed  as 
evidence  of  satisfaction  with  the  tests,  the  samples  will  be 
scrapped,  and  no  claims  for  rehearing  will  be  considered. 

Tallow. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Motive  Power  Dept., 
July  7,  1915.)  Tallow  will  be  furnished  in  either  of  the  two 
grades,  No.  i  or  No.  2,  as  ordered. 

No.  i  Tallow.  The  material  desired  under  this  specification  is 
clear  white  tallow,  as  free  from  acid,  dirt  or  cracklings  as  pos- 
sible. Material  must  meet  the  following  requirements  and  will 
be  condemned  if : 

1.  Sample  shows  dirt  or  cracklings  disseminated  through 

it  or  in  streaks,  or  if  the  barrel  from  which  sample 
was  taken  has  a  layer  of  dirt  or  cracklings  in  the 
bottom  more  than  J^  inch  in  thickness. 

2.  Sample  contains  more  than  1.5  per  cent,  of  free  acid. 

3.  Sample  contains  soap,  or  any  other  substance  not  prop- 

erly belonging  to  tallow. 

4.  Sample  has  a  melting  point  below   120°   F.  or  above 

125°  F. 

No.  2  Tallow.  This  material  will  be  obtained  for  common 
uses,  such  as  skidding  lumber,  protecting  iron  surface  from  rust, 
moving  heavy  machinery,  etc.  It  is  not  to  be  used  for  lubrica- 
tion of  machinery,  compounding  hot  box  grease,  or  for  use  in 
shipyard  around  copper  bottoms.  The  material  desired  in  this 
specification  is  a  clear,  nearly  white  tallow,  as  free  from  dirt 
and  cracklings  as  possible.  The  material  must  meet  the  following 
requirements,  and  will  be  condemned  if : 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   FATTY   OILS  17! 

1.  Sample  shows  dirt  or  cracklings  disseminated  through 

it  or  in  streaks,  or  if  the  barrel  from  which  samples 
are  taken  has  a  layer  of  dirt  or  cracklings  in  the 
bottom  more  than  J4  inch  thick. 

2.  Sample  contains  more  than  10  per  cent,  free  acid. 

3.  Sample  contains  soap  or  any  substance  not  properly  be- 

longing to  tallow. 

4.  Sample  has  a  melting  point  below   110°   F.  or  above 

120°  F. 
Tallow  will  not  be  accepted  that  is  rancid.    It  must  be  free 

from  odor  of  decomposition. 

Remarks :  Tallow  not  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  above 
specifications  will  be  condemned.  In  case  of  rejection  the  ma- 
terials will  be  held  for  two  weeks  from  the  date  of  test.  If  by 
the  end  of  that  period  the  manufacturers  have  not  given  shipping 
directions,  it  will  be  returned  to  them  at  their  risk,  they  paying 
the  freight  both  ways. 

Whale  Oil. — (Navy  Dept.,  April  20,  1910.)  Must  be  best 
grade  of  winter  strained  oil,  free  from  adulterations  with  other 
oils. 

Tested  with  litmus  paper,  it  must  show  no  trace  of  acid. 

It  will  begin  to  become  torpid  at  from  35°  to  42°  F.  and  cease 
to  flow  at  from  17°  to  18°  F. 

Specific  gravity  at  60°  F.,  from  0.9151  to  0.9174;  to  be  pur- 
chased and  inspected  by  weight,  the  number  of  pounds  per  gal- 
lon to  be  determined  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  at  60°  F. 
multiplied  by  8.33  pounds,  the  weight  of  a  gallon  (231  cubic 
inches)  of  distilled  water  at  the  same  temperature. 

Oils  must  be  accompanied  by  a  guaranty  from  the  manufac- 
turer that  it  is  pure  whale  oil. 

Before  acceptance  the  oil  will  be  inspected.  Samples  of  each 
lot  will  be  taken  at  random,  the  samples  well  mixed  together  in 
a  clean  vessel,  and  the  sample  for  test  taken  from  this  mixture. 
Should  the  mixture  be  found  to  contain  any  impurities  or  adul- 
terations, the  whole  delivery  of  oil  it  represents  will  be  rejected. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CYLINDER  OILS. 

Cylinder  Oil,  Light. — (War  Dept,  Depot  Quartermaster,  New 
York  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  where  a  light-col- 
ored valve  oil  is  desired. 

Must  be  a  compounded  oil  composed  of  15  per  cent,  pure  acid- 
less  tallow  oil  and  85  per  cent,  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must 
be  free  from  acid,  alkali,  tarry  or  suspended  matter,  and  must 
satisfactorily  pass  the  following  tests  : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.981  nor  more 

than  0.895  at  60°  F.     [26.4°  to  27.1°  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  470°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  540°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  2.30  at  100°  C.  (Eng- 

ler.)     [Approximately  81  Saybolt  at  210°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  36°  F. 
Acid. — Must  not  give  an  acid  reaction  on  polished  copper 

in  24  hours. 

Alkali. — Must  not  show  an  alkaline  reaction. 
Water. — Must  not  froth  or  bump  when  heated  in  flash 

cup. 

Tarry  and  Suspended  Matter. — Put  5  cc.  oil  in  100  cc. 
stoppered  measuring  flask  and  95  cc.  benzine.  Shake 
well  and  allow  to  stand  at  least  10  minutes.  There 
must  be  no  precipitation. 

Volatility. — Heat  small  quantity  of  oil  on  watch  glass,  for 
two  hours  at  400°  F.     There  must  not  be  a  loss  of 
more  than  5  per  cent,  by  weight. 
Saponification. — When  oil  is  treated  with  alcoholic  potash, 

must  show  the  presence  of  15  per  cent,  tallow  oil. 
Quart  samples  must  be  submitted. 

Cylinder  Oil,  Dark.— (War  Dept,  Depot  Quartermaster,  New 
York  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  where  steam  pres- 
sures are  high  and  lubricating  conditions  severe. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   CYLINDER  OILS  173 

Must  be  a  compounded  oil  composed  of  5  per  cent,  pure  acid- 
less  tallow  oil  and  95  per  cent,  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from 
acid,  alkali,  tarry  or  suspended  matter,  and  must  satisfactorily 
pass  the  following  tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.900  nor  more 

than  0.905  at  60°  F.     [24.7^  to  25.5  Be.] 
Flash.— Must  not  flash  below  540°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  600°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  3.83  at  100°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [Approximately  142  Saybolt  at  210°  F.] 
(Other  tests  as  for  light  cylinder  oil  above,  except  that  saponi- 
fication  must  show  the  presence  of  5  £>er  cent,  tallow  oil  and  no 
cold  test  is  specified.) 

Cylinder  Oil,  "Ammo." — (War  Dept.,  Depot  Quartermaster, 
New  York  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for  use  in 
ammonia  cylinders  of  ice  and  refrigerating  machinery. 

Must  be  a  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from  acid, 
alkali,  suspended  matter,  and  satisfactorily  pass  the  following 
tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.870  nor  more 

than  0.875  at  60°  F.     [30°  to  31°  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  370°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  420°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  2.38  at  50°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [Approximately  84  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  5°  F. 
(Acid,  alkali  and  water  tests  as  described   for  war  de- 
partment  light   cylinder   oil   above.      Must   show   no 
saponification.) 

Cylinder  Oil,  "Westo." — (War  Dept.,  Depot  Quartermaster, 
Xew  York  City,  Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for  use  in 
cylinders  of  Westinghouse  engines. 

Must  be  a  pure  mineral  oil  and  pass  satisfactorily  the  follow- 
ing tests : 


174  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.893  nor  more 

than  0.899  at  6o°  F-     [25-7°  to  26-8°  B^-] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  450°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  540°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  3.11  at  100°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [About  113  Saybolt  at  210°  F.] 
(Other  tests  as  given  under  war   department  light  cyl- 
inder oil  above.      No   cold  test   specified,   and  must 
show  no  saponification.) 

Cylinder  Oil  No.  3. —  (Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  Motive  Power 
Dept,  Baltimore,  Md.,  April  27,  1914.)  This  is  for  use  in  iso- 
lated water  pumping  plants  and  other  places  where  low  pressure 
saturated  steam  is  used  and  a  high  grade  cylinder  oil  is  not 
required. 

This  material  will  be  tested  and  inspected  on  its  arrival  at 
destination  by  the  B.  &  O.  Test  Bureau,  and  the  decision  of  the 
engineer  of  tests,  as  to  its  acceptance  or  rejection,  shall  be  final. 

(a)  The  oil  must  be  a  mixture  of  pure  petroleum  distillate  and 
acidless  animal  oil  (tallow  oil  preferred),  unmixed  with  any  other 
substance,   and  meet  the  requirements  of   the   following  detail 
specifications. 

(b)  This  material  will  be  purchased  by  weight.    Barrels  must 
be  in  good  condition,  and  must  have  the  name  of  contents  and 
consignor's  name  and  address  on  each  barrel,  and  plainly  marked 
with  the  gross  and  net  weights.    This  applies  to  oil  tank  cars  as 
well  as  barrels.     Parties   failing  to  mark  both  gross  and  tare 
weights  on  their  packages  must  accept  this  Company's  weights 
without  question. 

(c)  When  received,  all  shipments  will  be  promptly  weighed. 
If  not  practicable  to  empty  all  barrels,  5  per  cent,  will  be  emptied, 
and  the  losses  of  the  whole  shipment  will  be  adjusted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  5  per  cent,  taken.    Should  the  net  weight  taken  be 
less  by  I  per  cent,  than  the  weight  charged  on  bill,  a  reduction  will 
be  made  for  all  over  i  per  cent.  .This  I  per  cent,  covers  leakage 
in  transit,  and  the  amount  which  adheres  to  the  barrels  in  empty- 
ing; also  possible  slight  difference  in  scales. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   CYLINDER   OILS  175 

(d)  Price  should  be  given  in  cents  and  hundredths  of  a  cent 
per  pound. 

(e)  Shipments,  one  or  more  barrels  of  which  are  filled  with  oil 
containing  dirt,  water  or  other  impurities,  will  be  rejected. 

\\hen  a  shipment  is  received,  a  single  sample  will  be  taken  at 
random  from  any  barrel  and  subjected  to  test,  and  shipment  will 
be  accepted  or  rejected  on  this  sample. 

(a)  It  must  show  not  less  than  5  per  cent,  acidless  animal 

oil. 

(b)  It  must  have  a  flash  test  of  at  least  450°  F. 

(c)  It  must  have  a  fire  test  not  below  500°  F. 

(d)  It  must  have  a  cold  test  below  55°  F. 

(e)  The  gravity  must  be  between  21°  and  27°  Be.  at  60°  F. 
(/)   It  must  contain  not  more  than  o.io  per  cent,   free 

fatty  acid. 

(g)  It  must  be  free  from  dirt,  specks,  lumps,  grit,  wax, 
water,  soap  or  suspended  matter  of  any  kind,  acid 
or  alkali. 

(h)  Must  not  contain  more  than  3  per  cent,  volatile  mat- 
ter at  400°  F.  in  two  hours. 

(i)  The  viscosity  at  210°  F.  must  not  be  less  than  100 
seconds  when  tested  in  a  Universal  Saybolt  Vis- 
cosimeter. 

The  "Cleveland"  open  cup  is  used  for  determining  the 
flash  and  burning  point  of  this  oil,  heating  the  oil  at 
the  rate  of  about  15°  per  minute  and  applying  the 
test  flame  every  10°,  beginning  at  430°  F. 

Samples  representing  rejected  material  will  be  retained  in  the 
test  bureau  not  longer  than  two  weeks  from  date  of  test.  If  at 
the  end  of  that  period  the  sellers  have  not  given  shipping  direc- 
tions, the  material  represented  will  be  returned  to  them  at  their 
risk,  they  paying  the  freight  both  ways,  in  either  case. 

Cylinder  Stock.— (Philadelphia  &  Reading  Railway,  Office  First 
Vice-President,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  15,  1893.)  This  grade  of 
oil  shall  have  a  flashing  point  not  below  525°  F.,  and  a  burning 
point  not  below  600°  F.  The  test  will  be  made  in  an  open  vessel 


176  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

by  heating  the  oil  not  less  than  20°  per  minute,  and  applying  the 
test  flame  every  7°  beginning  at  504°. 

The  oil  must  flow  readily  at  60°  F.,  and  at  350°  F.  must  show  a 
viscosity  not  lower  ^han  that  of  a  pure  cane  sugar  solution  con- 
taining 52  grams  of  sugar  in  100  cc.  of  the  syrup,  the  viscosity 
of  the  sugar  solution  being  taken  at  80°  F. 

This  oil  must  be  transparent,  with  a  reddish  brown  or  green 
color,  free  from  lumps  or  specks. 

No  oil  will  be  accepted  which  shows  more  than  5  per  cent,  of 
flocculent  or  tarry  matter  settled  out,  after  5  cc.  of  the  oil  have 
been  mixed  with  95  cc.  of  88°  gasoline,  and  allowed  to  stand  for 
one  hour. 

Cold  Test. — About  2  ounces  of  oil  is  put  in  a  4-ounce  sample 
bottle,  a  thermometer  inserted  and  the  oil  frozen  with  a  mixture 
of  ice  and  salt.  When  the  oil  is  hard  the  bottle  is  taken  from  the 
freezing  mixture  and  the  frozen  oil  stirred  thoroughly  with  the 
thermometer  until  it  will  flow.  The  reading  of  the  thermometer 
is  then  taken,  and  this  temperature  is  regarded  as  the  cold  test 
of  the  oil. 

NOTE:. — The  viscosity  tests  will  be  made  upon  the  Torsion  vis- 
cosimeter. 

Cylinder  Oil. — (Philadelphia  &  Reading  Railway,  Nov.  15, 
1893.)  This  oil  shall  consist  of  a  high  grade  cylinder  stock, 
compounded  with  not  less  than  20  per  cent,  by  weight  of  acidless 
animal  oil,  tallow  or  tallow  oil  being  preferred. 

(The  other  tests  specified  for  this  "compounded  oil"  are  ex- 
actly as  given  for  cylinder  stock  just  above.) 


CHAPTER  XXL 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  SPECIAL  ENGINE  AND  MACHINE 
OILS  AND  CAR  OILS. 

A.  WAR  DEPARTMENT  SPECIFICATIONS. 

(Office  Depot  Quartermaster,  New  York  City.) 

Gas  Engine  Cylinder  Oil  (Non-Carbonizing). — (Mar.  i,  1909.) 
This  oil  is  suitable  for  lubrication  of  gasoline  engines  used  in 
emplacements  and  with  search  lights. 

Must  be  a  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from  acid, 
alkali  and  suspended  matter,  and  pass  satisfactorily  the  follow- 
ing tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  be  not  less  than  0.909  nor  more 

than  0.918  at  60°  F.     [22.5°  to  24.0°  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  410°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  450°  F. 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  16°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  5.65  at  50°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [About  212  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Acid. — Must  not  give  an  acid  reaction  on  polished  copper 

in  24  hours. 

Alkali. — Ash  must  not  show  an  alkaline  reaction. 
Water. — Must  not  froth  nor  bump  when  heated  in  flash 

cup. 

Saponification. — Must  be  unaffected  by  an  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  caustic  potash. 
Quart  samples  must  be  submitted  with  bid. 

Engine  Oil,  "Kero."—  (Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for 
use  in  cylinders  of  kerosene  engines. 

Must  be  a  compounded  oil  composed  of  25  per  cent,  of  fixed 
oil  of  good  quality,  and  75  per  cent,  pure  filtered  mineral  oil. 
Must  be  free  from  acid,  alkali  and  suspended  matter,  and  satis- 
factorily pass  the  following  tests. 


178  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.844  nor  more 

than  0.888  at  60°  F.     [27.6°  to  35.9  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  395°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  430°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  4.06  at  50°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [About  151  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  30°  F. 
Alkali. — Ash  must  not  show  an  alkaline  reaction. 
Water. — Must  not  froth  nor  bump  when  heated  in  flash 

cup. 
Saponification. — When  oil  is  treated  with  alcoholic  caustic 

potash  must  show  the  presence  of  25  per  cent,  fixed 

oil. 
Quart  samples  must  be  submitted  with  bid. 

Engine  Oil,  High  Speed. —  (Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable 
for  lubrication  of  high  speed  engines,  dynamos  and  high  speed 
work  generally. 

Must  be  a  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from  acid, 
alkali  and  suspended  matter,  and  pass  satisfactorily  the  follow- 
ing tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.869  nor  more 

than  0.873  at  60°  F.     [30.4°  to  31.1°  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  375°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  420°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  2.40  at  50°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [About  85  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  5°  F. 
(Other  tests  as  for  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  above.) 

Machine  Oil,  Light. — (Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for 
shafting  and  ordinary  lubrication  duties  on  light  running  m£- 
chinery. 

Must  be  a  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from  acid, 
alkali  and  suspended  matter,  and  pass  satisfactorily  the  follow- 
ing tests : 


SPECIAL    ENGINE,    MACHINE   AND   CAR   OILS  179 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.900  nor  more 
than  0.909  at  60°  F.  [24°  to  25.5°  Be.] 

Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  370°  F. 

Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  420°  F. 

Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  2.38  at  50°  C.  (Eng-- 
ler.)  [About  84  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 

Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  30°  F. 

(Other  tests  as  for  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  above.) 

Machine  Oil,  Heavy. — (Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for 
ordinary  machinery  where  heavy  pressure  and  slow  speed  call 
for  an  oil  of  heavier  body  than  Machine  Oil,  Light.  Also  for 
engine  bearings  of  moderate  speed  and  pressure. 

Must  be  a  pure  filtered  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free  from  acid, 
alkali  and  suspended  matter,  and  pass  satisfactorily  the  follow- 
ing tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — Must  not  be  less  than  0.881  nor  more 

than  0.886  at  60°  F.     [28°  to  29°  Be.] 
Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  380°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  440°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  less  than  4.50  at  50°  C.     (Eng- 

ler.)     [About  168  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F. 
(Other  tests  as  for  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  above.) 

Marine  Engine  Oil. — (Jan.  2,  1908.)  This  oil  is  suitable  for 
general  lubrication  of  marine  engines.  All  work  except  cylinder. 
Must  have  a  compounded  oil  composed  of  20  per  cent,  blown 
rapeseed  oil  and  80  per  cent,  pure  mineral  oil.  Must  be  free 
from  mineral  acid,  alkali,  and  suspended  matter,  and  must  satis- 
factorily pass  the  following  tests : 

Specific   Gravity. — Must  not  be  below  0.920  nor  above 

0.926  at  60°  F.     [21.2°  to  22:2°  Be.] 
Flash.— Must  not  flash  below  410°  F. 
Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  470°  F. 
Viscosity. — Must  not  be  below  8.1 1  at  50°  C.     (Engler.) 

[About  304  Saybolt  at  122°  F.] 
Cold  Test. — Must  flow  at  a  temperature  of  35°  F. 
13 


l8o  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

Saponification. — When  oil  is  treated  with  alcoholic  potash 
must  show  the  presence  of  20  per  cent,  blown  rape- 
seed  oil. 

(Other  tests  as  for  gas  engine  cylinder  oil  above.) 

B.  PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  SPECIFICATIONS. 
(Motive  Power  Dept,  Altoona,  Pa.,  Mar.  30,  1915.)     (General 
specifications  omitted.) 

Paraffin  and  Neutral  Oils. — These  grades  of  oil  will  not  be 
accepted  if  the  sample  from  shipment : 

Is  so  dark  in  color  that  printing  from  long  primer  type 
cannot  be  read  with  ordinary  daylight  through  a  layer 
of  the  oil  Y-2.  inch  thick. 
Flashes  below  298°  F. 

Has  a  gravity  at  60°  F.,  below  24°  or  above  35°  Be. 
From  Oct.  i  to  May  I  has  a  cold  test  above  10°  F.,  and 
from  May  i  to  October  i  has  a  cold  test  above  32°  F. 
The  color  test  is  made  by  having  a  layer  of  the  oil  of  the 
prescribed  thickness   in  a  proper  vessel,   and   then 
putting  the  printing  on  one  side  of  the  vessel  and 
reading  it  through  the  layer  of  oil  with  the  back  of 
the  observer  toward  the  source  of  light. 

Well  Oil. — This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  if  the  sample 
from  shipment : 

Flashes,  from  May  i  to  Oct.  I  below  298°  F.,  or  from 

Oct.  i  to  May  i,  below  249°  F. 
Has  a  gravity  at  60°  F.,  below  28°  or  above  31°  Be. 
From  Oct.  i  to  May  i,  has  a  cold  test  above  10°  F.,  and 

from  May  i  to  Oct.  i,  has  a  cold  test  above  32°  F. 
Shows  any  precipitation  when  5  cc.  are  mixed  with  95  cc. 

of  gasoline. 

The  precipitation  test  is  to  exclude  tarry  and  suspended 
matter.  It  is  made  by  putting  95  cc.  of  88°  Be.  gas- 
oline, which  must  not  be  above  80°  F.  in  tempera- 
ture, into  a  100  cc.  graduate,  then  adding  the  pre- 
scribed amount  of  oil  and  shaking  thoroughly.  Al- 
low to  stand  10  minutes.  With  satisfactory  oil  no 
separated  or  precipitated  material  can  be  seen. 


SPECIAL   ENGINE,    MACHINE   AND   CAR   OILS  l8l 

530°  Flash  Test  Oil.— This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  if 
the  sample  from  shipment : 
Flashes  below  522°  F. 
Has  a  gravity  at  60°  F.,  below  25°  Be. 
Shows  precipitation  with  gasoline  when  tested  as  described 

for  well  oil. 
Shippers  must  pay  freight  both  ways  on  rejected  material. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CUTTING  OILS. 

Cutting  Compound,  Paste. —  (Navy  Dept,  Bureau  of  Supplies 
and  Accounts,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Jan.  2,  1917.)  To  be  used  for 
machine  cutting  tool  lubricant  when  mixed  as  directed. 

To  be  a  soluble  paste  compound  consisting  of  an  alkali  soap, 
mineral  oil  and  fixed  saponifiable  oils  and  water.  To  be  free 
from  disagreeable  odors,  mineral  acids,  or  any  ingredients  in- 
jurious to  persons  handling  the  material. 

To  contain  not  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  water,  not  more  than 
20  per  cent,  of  alkali  soap,  not  less  than  40  per  cent,  of  mineral 
oil,  and  the  remainder  fixed  saponifiable  oil.  It  must  form  a 
stable  emulsion  when  mixed  with  water. 

The  emulsion  must  sufficiently  lubricate  turret  and  automatic 
machines  to  prevent  sticking,  the  solution  used  to  be  suitable  for 
work  being  performed  on  the  machine,  and  must  show  no  ten- 
dency to  leave  a  gummy  residue. 

Strips  of  polished  steel  are  to  show  no  appreciable  corrosion 
after  being  partly  immersed  in  mixture  for  a  period  of  two  weeks. 

One  pound  of  the  paste  will  be  put  into  emulsification  with  3 
gallons  of  water  and  the  emulsion  permitted  to  flow  at  the 
rate  of  I  gallon  per  minute  over  a  steel  cylinder  heated  by  an 
electric  coil  consuming  440  watts  which  maintains  a  constant 
temperature  of  100°  C.  in  air.  After  a  period  of  8  hours,  the 
maximum  rise  of  temperature  of  the  emulsion  shall  not  exceed 
12°  C.  This  physical  test  will  be  conducted  at  the  New  York 
Navy  Yard  on  samples  before  approval  on  the  standard  apparatus 
shown  in  drawing  No.  36367^,  which  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Engineer  Officer  at  the  Navy  Yard,  New  York. 

To  be  purchased  by  the  pound  and  delivered  in  heavy  barrels 
of  not  more  than  500  pounds  capacity,  suitable  for  foreign  ship- 
ment, or  in  25-pound  friction-top  cans  packed  in  wood  cases,  two 
to  a  case.  The  quality  of  the  containers  to  be  such  as  to  provide 
against  leakage  or  deterioration  in  storage  and  in  handling. 

Contractors  who  propose  to  furnish  cutting  compound  (paste) 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  CUTTING  OILS  183 

under  these  specifications  may  have  a  5-pound  sample  tested  at 
Navy  Yard,  New  York,  and  if  the  test  proves  satisfactory  this 
cutting  compound  (paste),  will  be  placed  on  an  acceptable  list. 
The  contractor  will  be  required  to  submit  a  5-pound  sample  of 
cutting  compound  (paste)  to  be  supplied  with  each  new  bid,  and 
state  the  approximate  date  of  test. 

Soluble  Cutting  Oils  or  Cutting  Compounds  (Liquid  Form). — 

(Navy  Dept.,  Mar.  i,  1916.)  To  be  used  in  emulsion  with  water 
for  machine  cutting-tool  lubricant. 

To  be  a  clean  and  homogeneous  mixture  of  soluble  alkali  soap 
in  mineral  and  fixed  saponifiable  oils.  It  shall  be  free  from  dis- 
agreeable odors,  sediment,  mineral  acids,  ingredients  injurious  to 
persons  handling,  and  shall  contain  not  more  than  10  per  cent, 
of  water  and  not  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  soluble  alkali  soap. 

To  be  capable  of  readily  mixing  with  water  in  all  proportions, 
without  the  use  of  sodium  carbonate  or  other  addition,  to  form 
a  stable  emulsion. 

The  emulsified  oil  must  sufficiently  lubricate  turret  and  auto- 
matic machines  to  prevent  sticking,  the  solution  used  to  be  suit- 
able for  the  work  performed  on  the  machine,  and  must  show  no 
tendency  to  leave  a  gummy  residue. 

Strips  of  polished  steel  are  to  show  no  appreciable  corrosion 
after  being  partly  immersed  in  the  emulsion  for  a  period  of  two 
weeks. 

(Three  pints  of  oil  are  put  into  emulsification  with  3  gallons 
of  water,  and  subjected  to  the  cooling  test  as  given  for  the  cutting 
paste  above.  The  methods  of  packing,  etc.,  are  substantially  as 
there  described,  payment  being  by  the  gallon.) 

Mineral  Lard  Oil. — (Navy  Dept.,  Feb.  i,  1916.)  To  be  used 
for  machine  cutting  tool  lubricant,  either  unadulterated  or  com- 
pounded with  mineral  oil  or  soda  and  water. 

To  be  clean  and  homogeneous ;  free  of  disagreeable  odors, 
rancidness,  sediment,  or  ingredients  injurious  to  persons  handling 
the  material ;  and  to  be  easily  soluble  and  retain  oily  consistency  in 
kerosene  or  soda  and  cold  water  mixtures.  To  have  a  specific 
gravity  at  15°  C.  of  about  0.90,  a  flash  point  in  an  open  tester 


184  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

of  not  less  than  180°  C.,  and  flow  at  — 4°  C.  To  contain  not  less 
than  25  per  cent,  and  not  more  than  35  per  cent,  of  fixed  sapon- 
ifiable  oils,  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  mineral,  and  not  more  than 
5  per  cent,  of  free  fatty  acid  (calculated  as  oleic  acid). 

Measured  in  a  Saybolt  viscosimeter  (with  a  3o-second  water 
rate  at  15°  C.)  the  oil  to  show  about  185  seconds  at  38°  C.  and  115 
seconds  at  48°  C. 

A  saucer  with  enough  test  oil  to  cover  the  bottom  when  placed 
in  an  oven  at  a  constant  temperature  of  120°  C.  for  a  period  of 
8  hours,  when  taken  out  and  permitted  to  cool  gradually,  shall 
show  no  signs  of  a  gummy  residue. 

Strips  of  polished  steel  to  show  no  appreciable  corrosion  in  two 
weeks'  time  when  partly  immersed  in  samples  of  the  oil,  or  in 
a  mixture  of  the  oil  and  kerosene,  or  in  an  emulsion  of  the  oil, 
soda  and  water. 

(Three  gallons  of  the  unadulterated  oil  will  be  put  into  a  steel 
tank  and  given  the  cooling  test  described  under  cutting  paste 
above,  the  maximum  rise  of  temperature  permitted  in  3  hours 
being  30°  C.  Delivery  in  packages  as  above  described;  payment 
by  the  gallon.) 

Lard  Oil. — For  pipe  cutting  and  threading  purposes.  (Navy 
Dept.,  Oct.  i,  1915.)  See  page  160. 

Lard  Oil. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  July  7,  1915.)  No.  2 
for  turret  lathes,  cutting  threads,  staybolt  cutters,  etc.  (See 
page  163.) 

Screw  Cutting  Oil. — (Philadelphia  &  Reading  Railway,  Nov. 
15,  1893.)  This  oil  shall  consist  of  paraffin  oil  of  about  27°  Be. 
gravity,  compounded  with  not  less  than  25  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  fat  oil,  cottonseed  preferred. 

The  compounded  oil  shall  show  a  flashing  point  not  below  300° 
F.,  and  a  burning  point  not  above  425°  F.  The  test  will  be  made 
in  an  open  vessel  by  heating  the  oil  not  less  than  15°  per  minute, 
and  applying  the  test  flame  once  in  7°,  beginning  at  275°. 

From  Oct.  i  to  Apr.  i  the  oil  must  have  a  cold  test  not  above 
15°  F. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  GREASES,  GRAPHITE,  BOILER 
COMPOUND  AND  COTTON  WASTE. 

(Navy  Dept.,  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Accounts, 
Washington,  D.  C.) 

Mineral  Lubricating  Grease. — (Nov.  i,  1916.)  Mineral  lubri- 
cating grease  shall  be  a  homogeneous  mixture  consisting  exclus- 
ively of  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  mineral  oil  and  the  remainder 
an  odorless  lime  soap  made  from  clear  animal  fats  and  the  proper 
amount  of  lime  for  saponification.  It  shall  be  free  from  fillers, 
uncombined  lime,  gritty  substances,  rosin  oil,  rosin,  or  resinates, 
and  from  mineral  or  fatty  acids,  alkalies,  or  any  deleterious  im- 
purities, and  shall  not  yield  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  ash  from 
medium  grease,  and  not  more  than  3  per  cent,  of  ash  from  hard 
grease.  The  grease  shall  lose  not  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  when  heated  for  I  hour  at  110°  C.  in  a  glass  crystallizing 
dish  containing  10  grams  of  grease,  in  an  air  oven. 

(a)  Medium  grease  shall  flow  at  a  temperature  of  from  75° 
to  80°  C.  when  tested  in  a  glass  crystallizing  dish  containing 
about  10  grams  of  grease,  heated  in  an  air  oven. 

(&)  Hard  grease  shall  flow  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  C. 
when  tested  in  a  glass  crystallizing  dish  containing  about  10 
grams  of  grease,  heated  in  an  air  oven. 

The  grease  shall  possess  lubricating  properties  determined  by 
practical  test  in  a  lubricant-testing  machine,  as  follows : 

When  fed  at  a  rate  of  not  exceeding  iy2  grains  per  minute 
through  a  grease  cup,  on  friction  surface  of  a  brass  shoe  having 
9  square  inches  bearing  surface,  sustaining  a  load  of  1,926 
pounds  against  a  steel  journal  6  inches  in  diameter,  revolving  at 
a  surface  velocity  of  405  feet  per  minute,  it  shall  maintain  an 
even  temperature  of  not  more  than  50°  C.  above  surrounding 
normal  temperatures,  and  the  coefficient  of  friction  shall  be  con- 
stant during  the  last  hour  of  the  run  and  shall  not  exceed  0.013. 

Mineral  lubricating  grease  is  intended  for  use  in  compression 
grease  cups  for  bearings.  For  rapid-running  machines  in  cool 


l86  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

climates  medium  grease  should  be  ordered.  For  hot  climates  or 
heavy-running  machinery  hard  greases  should  in  general  be 
ordered. 

The  grease  shall  be  delivered  in  friction-top  cans  of  10  pounds' 
capacity,  properly  labeled  with  name  and  grade  of  material, 
manufacturer's  name,  and  net  contents  of  can.  To  be  packed  in 
boxes  of  80  or  100  pounds  each;  the  boxes  to  be  made  of  T/^-inch 
new  pine  or  spruce,  planed  on  both  sides,  and  properly  labeled 
with  contents  and  contract  number. 

Graphite  Lubricating  Grease. — (Nov.  i,  1916.)  Graphite  grease 
to  consist  of  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  amorphous  graphite  containing 
at  least  82  per  cent,  of  graphitic  carbon  mixed  with  a  mineral 
lubricating  grease  of  the  following  composition  and  consistency : 
Mineral  grease  to  be  a  homogeneous  mixture  consisting  of  from 
80  to  90  per  cent,  mineral  oil,  and  the  remainder  an  odorless 
lime  soap  made  from  clean  animal  fats  and  the  proper  amount  of 
lime  for  saponification.  To  be  free  from  grit,  rosin,  or  resin- 
ates,  and  from  mineral  or  fatty  acids,  alkalies,  or  any  deleterious 
impurities.  Medium  grease  to  flow  at  a  temperature  of  from  75° 
to  80°  C.,  and  hard  grease  to  flow  at  about  90°  C.  when  tested 
in  a  glass  crystallizing  dish  containing  about  10  grams  of  grease, 
heated  in  an  air  oven.  The  grease  to  lose  not  more  than  2  per 
cent  of  its  weight  when  heated  for  one  hour  at  110°  C.  and 
tested  in  a  similar  dish  and  oven. 

To  possess  lubricating  properties,  determined  by  practical  test 
in  Riehle  bearing  testing  machine,  as  follows:  (Method  exactly 
as  for  "mineral  lubricating  grease"  just  above,  except  that 
grease  fed  at  a  rate  not  exceeding  2^4  grains  per  minute  and  the 
coefficient  of  friction  "shall  not  exceed  0.031  for  medium  grease 
and  0.04  for  hard  grease.") 

Graphite  lubricating  grease  under  these  specifications  is  in- 
tended for  use  on  gearing  of  heavy  machinery  and  bearings  ex- 
posed to  weather  and  heat.  If  harder  grease  is  required  for 
special  purposes,  a  larger  percentage  of  graphite  may  be  spec- 
ified or  graphite  will  be  added  to  the  grease  supplied. 

(Specifications  for  packing  as  given  above.) 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  GREASES,   GRAPHITE,   ETC.  187 

Flake  Lubricating  Graphite. — (May  i,  1914.)  To  be  the  best 
grade  of  foliated  flake  graphite  reasonably  free  from  amorphous 
graphite.  Samples  taken  from  any  lot  must  show  on  analysis  at 
least  88  per  cent,  of  graphitic  carbon.  It  must  be  free  from 
grit,  dirt,  or  other  deleterious  substance.  Requisition  to  show 
whether  coarse,  medium,  or  fine  graphite  is  desired. 

Flake  lubricating  graphite  must  be  put  up  in  air-tight  rectangu- 
lar cans  with  screwed  tops,  each  containing  25  pounds,  or  as  may 
be  otherwise  required. 

Each  can  must  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material,  the 
trade-mark,  if  any,  and  the  name  of  the  manufacturer. 

Graphite,  Ground,  Amorphous  (Lubricating). — (Jan.  2,  1917.) 
Samples  taken  from  any  lot  must  show  upon  analysis  at  least  82 
per  cent,  of  graphitic  carbon.  It  must  be  free  from  grit,  dirt,  or 
any  other  deleterious  substance. 

Amorphous  graphite  must  be  ground  fine  enough  to  pass  a 
Xo.  20  bolting  cloth. 

To  be  put  up  in  strong  well-made  I  co-pound  barrels,  with 
marking  on  heads,  or,  if  directed,  in  5-  and  25-pound  commer- 
cial tins. 

Each  container  must  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  material, 
the  trade-mark,  if  any,  and  the  name  of  the  manufacturer. 

Boiler  Compound. — (Sept.  2,  1913.)  To  be  a  powdered  com- 
pound composed  of  sodium  carbonate,  trisodium  phosphate, 
starch,  and  cutch. 

These  materials  are  to  be  intimately  united  by  thorough 
digestion,  dried  and  finely  powdered,  the  product  to  be  readily 
soluble  in  water  and  uniform  in  composition. 

The  compound  must  show  on  analysis  at  least  76  per  cent, 
of  anhydrous  sodium  carbonate  (Na2CO3),  10  per  cent,  of  tri- 
sodium phosphate  (Na3PO4.i2H2O),  i  per  cent,  of  starch,  and 
sufficient  cutch  to  yield  2  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid.  The  remainder 
to  consist  of  water  and  only  such  impurities  as  are  common  to 
the  ingredients. 

To  determine  the  sodium  carbonate,  incinerate  I  gram,  dis- 
solve in  water,  and  wash  into  a  flask.  Add  an  excess  of  standard 


l88  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

acid,  boil,  and  titrate  back  with  standard  alkali,  using  phenolph- 
thalein  as  indicator.  Calculate  to  Na2CO3,  which  result  is  the 
actual  sodium  carbonate  plus  the  sodium  carbonate  equivalent  of 
the  alkalinity  of  the  trisodium  phosphate.  Therefore,  deduct  from 
this  figure  14/100  of  the  percentage  of  fully  hydrated  trisodium 
phosphate  found  present,  and  the  result  is  the  percentage  of 
sodium  carbonate. 

The  contractor  shall  submit  an  affidavit  sample  of  the  cutch 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  each  lot  of  material  delivered. 

To  be  packed  in  practically  air-tight  tins,  of  the  soldered-top 
type,  each  tin  to  contain  25  pounds  net  of  the  powdered  com- 
pound. To  be  delivered  in  substantial  wooden  crates,  4  tins  to 
the  crate. 

Each  tin  to  be  marked  with  name  and  net  weight  of  contents. 
Each  crate  to  have  the  name  of  the  material,  quantity  contained, 
and  name  of  manufacturer  neatly  stenciled  on  one  end. 

Net  weight  only  will  be  paid  for. 

Cotton  Waste. — (June  I,  1914.)  Standard  white  cotton  waste 
only  will  be  purchased  as  the  needs  of  the  service  require.  A 
sample  of  cotton  waste  showing  the  minimum  quality  of  cotton 
waste  acceptable  can  be  obtained  upon  application  to  the  general 
storekeeper  of  the  New  York  Navy  Yard. 

If  practicable,  the  inspection  will  be  made  at  the  mill  during  the 
process  of  manufacture  and  baling.  Inspection  upon  delivery 
will  be  made  where  it  is  impracticable  to  inspect  at  the  mill  and 
when  the  waste  is  baled.  All  handling  of  material  necessary  for 
purposes  of  inspection  shall  be  performed  and  all  test  specimens 
necessary  for  the  determination  of  the  qualities  of  the  material 
used  shall  be  prepared  and  tested  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

The  waste  will  be  supplied  in  bales,  net  weight  to  be  50  or  100 
pounds,  as  specified,  such  bales  having  a  volume  of  3^  cubic 
feet  and  7  cubic  feet,  respectively.  The  bales  supplied  must 
average  the  weight  that  is  ordered,  a  variation  of  10  per  cent, 
in  the  weight  of  single  bales  being  allowed. 

Gross  weight  will  be  paid  for,  subject  to  the  following  pro- 
visions, viz.:  Weight  of  wrappings,  including  hoops,  not  to  ex- 
ceed 6  per  cent,  of  gross  weight,  and  moisture  not  to  exceed  3 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  GREASES,   GRAPHITE,   ETC.  189 

per  cent.  Any  excess  of  the  foregoing  elements  up  to  3  per  cent, 
will  be  deducted  from  contract  price  at  the  same  price  per  pound 
that  is  paid  for  the  waste.  If  the  tare  exceeds  9  per  cent,  or 
moisture  6  per  cent.,  the  waste  will  not  be  accepted. 

The  material  desired  under  these  specifications  is  to  be  all  new 
fine,  white,  soft,  cotton  threads,  of  about  10  per  cent,  slasher,  15 
per  cent,  spooler,  and  the  balance  of  cop,  properly  mixed  with 
longer  threads  to  form  a  binder,  and  machined  into  a  homogen- 
eous mass.  The  waste  shall  be  practically  free  from  threads  less 
than  3  inches  long,  and  shall  not  contain  any  colored  threads,  any 
coarse  or  unabsorbent  threads,  strings,  and  fiber  (except  cotton), 
sweepings,  flyings,  dirt,  or  material  that  has  been  soiled  or  washed. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  BURNING  OILS. 

Mineral  Sperm  Oil. — (Navy  Dept.,  Bureau  of  Supplies  and 
Accounts,  Washington,  D.  C.,  June  15,  1910.)  Must  be  prime 
white  or  better  and  free  from  all  cloudiness,  impurities  or  adul- 
terations ;  must  not  become  cloudy  at  any  temperature  above  32° 
F.,  must  be  entirely  free  from  acid;  must  not  flash  below  255° 
F.  (open  tester),  300°  F.  fire  test,  and  have  a  specific  gravity 
between  37°  and  41°  Be.  (0.8383  to  0.8187)  at  60°  F.;  Lima  oil 
products  excluded ;  to  be  purchased  and  inspected  by  weight. 

(a)  Before  acceptance  the  oil  will  be  inspected.     Samples  of 
each  lot  will  be  taken  at  random,  the  samples  well  mixed  in  a 
clean  vessel,  and  the  sample  for  test  taken  from  this  mixture. 
Should  the  mixture  be  found  to  contain  any  impurities  or  adul- 
terations, the  whole  delivery  of  oil  it  represents  will  be  rejected 
and  is  to  be  removed  by  the  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

(b)  The  quantity  to  be  delivered  to  be  determined  by  weight; 
the  number  of  pounds  per  gallon  to  be  determined  by  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  oil  at  60°  F.  multiplied  by  8.33  pounds,  the  weight 
of  a  gallon  (231  cubic  inches)  of  distilled  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature. 

(c)  To  be  delivered  in  specified  cans  and  cases  or  in  white  oak 
casks. 

NOTE;. — Oil  deliveries,  except  final  deliveries,  shall  be  in  lots 
of  not  less  than  5,000  pounds,  each  delivery  will  be  inspected  and 
tested  as  a  separate  lot,  if  rejected  bought  in  open  market  for 
contractor's  account. 

Min-eral  Sperm  Oil. — (War  Dept.,  Office  Depot  Quartermaster, 
New  York  City,  Feb.  20,  1908.)  Must  be  clear,  neutral  and  water 
white,  and  must  conform  to  the  following  tests : 

Specific  Gravity. — 39°-4i°  Be.  at  60°  F. 

Flash. — Must  not  flash  below  255°  F. 

Fire. — Must  not  burn  below  300°  F. 

Cloudiness. — Must  not  become  cloudy  above  32°  F. 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR   BURNING   OILS  IQI 

Kerosene. — (Navy  Dept.,  May  I,  1914.)  A  representative 
sample  to  be  tested  photometrically  after  burning  for  one  hour  in 
a  lamp  fitted  with  a  No.  I  Sun  Hinge  burner.  Five  hours  later 
another  photometric  test  shall  be  made  to  determine  any  change 
in  intensity  of  the  light,  the  maximum  allowable  loss  being  5  per 
cent.  The  flame  shall  show  at  least  6  candle-power  when  com- 
pared photometrically  with  an  incandescent  lamp  which  has  been 
standardized  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 

The  sample  must  show  a  flash  test  of  not  less  than  115°  F. 
and  a  fire  test  of  not  less  than  140°  F.  These  tests  shall  be  con- 
ducted in  a  "Tagliabue"  closed  type  tester. 

A  part  of  sample  shall  be  shaken  with  warm  water  and  allowed 
to  cool  and  separate.  The  water  when  separated,  to  react  neu- 
trally to  methyl  orange. 

For  eastern  oil  the  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is  required  to  be 
not  greater  than  0.802;  for  western  oil  not  greater  than  0.813. 

When  burned  in  a  standard  lamp  or  lantern,  the  oil  shall  burn 
steadily  and  clearly,  without  smoking  and  with  a  minimum  in- 
crustation of  the  wick,  for  a  period  of  72  hours. 

The  quantity  delivered  shall  be  determined  by  weight.  (De- 
tailed methods  of  weighing  and  packing  in  specified  containers 
also  given.) 

Petroleum  Burning  Oil. — (Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  Motive 
Power  Dept.,  Feb.  25,  1911.)  (General  specifications  are  given 
under  B.  &  O.  cylinder  oil  No.  3.  See  Index.)  Two  kinds  of 
petroleum  burning  oil  will  be  used,  known  as  150°  fire  test  for 
general  use,  and  300°  fire  test  for  use  in  passenger  cars. 

750°  Fire  Test  Oil,  for  headlights,  office,  switch  and  station 
lamps. 

(a)  It  must  have  a  flash  test  of  at  least  125°  F.  Taglia- 

bue open  cup. 

(b)  It  must  have  a  fire  test  not  below  150°  F. 

(c)  It  must  have  a  cloud  test  not  above  o°  F. 

(d)  It  must  be  "water  white"  in  color,  and   free   from 

sulphur  in  any  form. 

(e)  Its  gravity  must  be  between  45°  and  48°  Be.  at  60° 

F. 


IQ2  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

(/)  It  must  show  no  flock  when  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  270°  F.  for  one  hour. 

(g)  Weight  per  gallon,  6.6 1  pounds. 

(h)  It  must  burn  freely  and  steadily  with  the  standard 
burners  and  wicks  used  for  this  oil.  Using  a  banner 
burner  with  i-inch  flat  wick,  the  oil  must  give  a 
good  flame  for  24  hours,  without  smoking  or  form- 
ing ears,  and  giving  only  a  slight  stain  on  chimney. 
Using  a  standard  long  time  burner  with  Y^  -inch 
round  wick,  and  12  ounces  of  oil,  all  the  oil  must 
be  consumed,  giving  a  good  flame  the  entire  time. 
In  either  burning  test  the  wick  must  not  be  trimmed, 
or  raised  during  the  test. 

300°  Fire  Test  Oil,  for  lamps  in  passenger  cars. 

(a)  It  must  have  flash  test  not  below  250°  F. 

(b)  It  must  have  a  fire  test  not  below  300°  F. 

(c)  It  must  have  a  cloud  test  not  above  32°  F. 

(d)  It  must  be  "standard  white"  in  color,  and  free  from 

sulphur  in  any  form. 

(e)  Its  gravity  must  be  between  38°  and  42°  Be.  at  60°  F. 
(/)   It  must  show  no  flock  when  heated  to  450°  F. 

(g)  Weight  per  gallon,  6.85  pounds. 
(h)  It  must  burn  freely  and  steadily  with  the  standard 
burners  and  wicks  used  for  this  oil. 

Method  of  Making  Tests. — The  "Open  Tagliabue"  cup  is  used 
for  determining  the  flashing  and  burning  point  of  150°  fire  test 
oil ;  heating  at  the  rate  of  2°  F.  per  minute,  and  applying  the  test 
flame  every  degree  from  120°  for  flash,  and  every  4°  after  flash 
for  the  burning  point. 

The  "Cleveland"  cup  is  used  for  determining  the  flashing  and 
burning  point  of  300°  Fire  Test  oil,  heating  at  the  rate  of  5°  per 
minute,  and  applying  the  test  flame  every  5°  from  230°  F. 

The  Cloud  Test  is  made  as  follows:  Two  ounces  of  oil  are 
placed  in  a  4-ounce  sample  bottle,  with  a  thermometer  suspended 
in  the  oil.  The  bottle  is  exposed  to  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice 
and  salt,  and  the  oil  stirred  with  a  thermometer  while  cooling. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  BURNING   OILS  193 

The  temperature  at  which  the  cloud  forms  is  taken  as  the  cloud 
test. 

The  flock  test  is  made  by  having  about  2  fluid  ounces  of  the 
oil  in  a  6-ounce  beaker,  with  a  thermometer  suspended  in  the  oil, 
and  then  heating  slowly  until  the  thermometer  shows  the  re- 
quired temperature.  The  oil  changes  color,  but  must  show  no 
precipitation. 

In  addition  to  the  above  tests  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad 
Company  reserves  the  right  to  make  any  additional  tests  to  insure 
that  only  material  meeting  all  the  requirements  set  forth  in  this 
specification  be  accepted,  and  all  material  represented  found  not 
up  to  any  one  or  all  the  requirements,  will  be  rejected. 

Burning  Oils. — (Norfolk  &  Western  Railway,  Motive  Power 
Dept,  Roanoke,  Va.,  June  n,  1909.)  Two  grades  of  petroleum 
burning  oils  will  be  used.  The  material  desired  under  these 
specifications  is  pure  petroleum  distillate,  unmixed  with  any  other 
substance,  and  must  conform  to  the  following  specifications : 

Long  Time  Burning  Oil. — This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted 
which : 

1.  Flashes  below  120°  F. 

2.  Burns  below  140°  F. 

3.  Is  not  water  white  in  color. 

4.  Is  cloudy  from  any  cause  whatsoever. 

5.  Becomes  opaque  when  reduced  to  the  temperature  of 

from  o°  to  — 5°  F.,  and  allowed  to  stand  at  this  tem- 
perature for  10  minutes. 

6.  Has  a  gravity  below  45°  or  above  50°  Be.  at  60°  F. 

7.  Does  not  comply  satisfactorily  with  the  following  burn- 

ing conditions:  Norfolk  &  Western  Railway  type 
semaphore  signal  lamp  thoroughly  cleaned  is  fitted 
with  an  Armspear  "long  time  slip  burner,"  3^-inch 
shaft,  and  a  new  red  wool  long  time  burning  wick; 
600  cc.  of  oil  are  delivered  into  the  oil  pot,  the  lamp 
lighted,  and  the  wick  turned  up  to  give  a  flame  I  inch 
high  without  smoking.  A  second  lamp  is  fitted  up  in 
like  manner  and  lighted  at  the  same  time.  After  both 


194  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

lamps  have  burned  for  one  hour  the  second  lamp  is 
extinguished.  After  the  first  lamp  has  burned  for 
1 20  hours,  the  second  lamp  is  relighted  and  the  height 
of  the  two  flames  compared.  The  flame  from  the 
first  lamp  must  show  a  height  of  flame  at  least  one- 
half  that  of  the  comparison  flame.  The  first  lamp 
must  then  continue  to  burn  without  marked  diminu- 
tion of  flame  until  all  the  oil  in  the  oil  pot  is  con- 
sumed, which  total  burning  period  must  be  at  least 
150  hours. 
The  flashing  and  burning  points  of  this  oil  will  be  determined 

by  using  the  Tagliabue  open  fire  tester.     (Method  specified  for 

flash  test,  fire  test  and  cold  test.) 

500°  Burning  Oil.  This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  which : 

1.  Flashes  below  250°  F. 

2.  Burns  below  300°  F. 

3.  Is  not  water  white  or  prime  white  in  color. 

4.  Is  cloudy  from  any  cause  whatever. 

5.  Becomes   opaque  when  reduced  to   a   temperature   of 

32°  F. 

6.  Shows  precipitation  or  discoloration  deeper  than  a  dark 

straw  when  heated  to  400°  F.  and  allowed  to  cool  to 
the  temperature  of  the  room. 

7.  Has  a  gravity  below  37°  or  above  41°  Be.  at  60°  F. 

8.  Does  not  burn  up  completely  600  cc.  of  oil  from  a  lamp 

fitted  with  Dual  Burner  No.  3,  and  two  duplex  wicks, 
without  encrusting  the  wick  and  without  any  marked 
diminution  of  the  flame.  (Methods  specified  for 
flash,  fire,  and  heating  tests.  -Flash  and  fire  tests 
are  with -a  porcelain  dish  in  a  sand  bath.) 

Specifications  for  Petroleum  Products. — (Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road, Office  General  Superintendent  of  Motive  Power,  Altoona, 
Pa.,  Mar.  30,  1915.)  (General  specifications  omitted.) 

150°  Fire  Test  Oil. — This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  if 
sample  from  shipment : 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  BURNING   OILS  195 

1.  Is  not  "water  white"  in  color. 

2.  Flashes  below  130°  F. 

3.  Burns  below  151°  F. 

4.  Is  cloudy  or  shipment  has  cloudy  barrels  when  received, 

from  the  presence  of  glue  or  suspended  matter. 

5.  Becomes  opaque  or  shows  cloud  when  the  sample  has 

been  10  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  o°  F. 

6.  Fails  to  give  a  satisfactory  flame  during  six  days  con- 

tinuous burning  in  a  long  time  burning  switch  lamp, 
or  shows  an  appreciable  amount  of  hard  compact 
crust  on  the  wick  at  the  end  of  the  test. 

The  examination  of  a  shipment  for  oil  that  is  cloudy  from  glue 
or  suspended  matter,  must  be  made  by  those  by  whom  the  oil  is 
received.  This  examination  applies  especially  to  150°  and  300° 
fire  test  oils.  As  this  defect  rarely  characterizes  all  of  the 
barrels  of  a  shipment,  it  is  obvious  that  the  sample  for  test  may 
fail  to  show  it.  Accordingly  when  any  barrel  or  barrels  in  a 
shipment  are  found  to  be  cloudy  from  glue  or  suspended  matter, 
such  barrels  must  be  set  aside  and  returned  to  the  shippers,  not- 
withstanding the  test  report  has  shown  the  shipment  to  be  ready 
for  use. 

300°  Fire  Test  Oil — This  grade  of  oil  will  not  be  accepted  if 
sample  from  shipment: 

1.  Is  not  "water  white"  in  color. 

2.  Flashes  below  249°  F. 

3.  Burns  below  298°  F. 

4.  Is  cloudy  or  shipments  have  cloudy  barrels  when  re- 

ceived, from  the  presence  of  glue  or  suspended 
matter. 

5.  Becomes  opaque  or  shows  cloud  when  the  sample  has 

been  10  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F. 

6.  Shows  precipitation  when  some  of  the  sample  is  heated 

to  450°  F. 

The  precipitation  test  is  made  by  having  about  2  fluid  ounces 
of  the  oil  in  a  6-ounce  beaker,  with  a  thermometer  suspended  in 
the  oil,  and  then  heating  slowly  until  the  thermometer  shows  the 
14 


196  AMERICAN   IvUBRICANTS 

required  temperature.    The  oil  changes  color  but  shows  no  pre- 
cipitation. 

Petroleum  Products. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Motive 
Power  Dept,  July  19,  1915.)  The  materials  desired  under  this 
specification  are  petroleum  or  the  products  of  its  distillation  and 
refining,  unmixed  with  any  other  substance  and  conforming  to 
the  detailed  specifications  below : 

Illuminating  oils  must  be  water  white  in  color,  and  free  from 
sulphur  in  any  form.  "Cracked"  oils  are  not  desired.  Products 
having  an  offensive  odor  or  containing  any  admixture  of  other 
oils,  will  not  be  accepted.  All  samples  must  show  a  neutral  or 
slightly  alkaline  reaction. 

One  sample  shall  be  taken  from  each  carload  or  fraction  there- 
of, and  subjected  to  the  following  tests: 

Headlight  or  150°  Oil. — Sample  must  not  flash  below  a  tem- 
perature of  130°,  or  burn  below  a  temperature  of  150°  F.,  when 
heated  at  the  rate  of  2°  per  minute.  The  test  flame  to  be  applied 
once  every  5°,  beginning  at  110°.  The  above  flash  and  fire  tests 
will  be  made  in  the  Tagliabue  open-cup  tester. 

Samples  must  remain  clear  and  transparent  when  cooled  to  a 
temperature  of  o°  and  held  there  for  10  minutes. 

It  must  have  a  specific  gravity  of  between  41°  and  48°  Be. 

Mineral  Seal  or  300°  Oil. — Sample  must  not  flash  below  a  tem- 
perature of  245°,  or  burn  below  a  temperature  of  300°  F.,  when 
heated  at  the  rate  of  5°  per  minute.  The  test  flame  to  be  applied 
once  every  5°,  beginning  at  180°.  The  above  flash  and  fire  tests 
will  be  made  in  the  Tagliabue  open-cup  tester. 

Samples  must  remain  clear  and  transparent  when  cooled  to  a 
temperature  of  32°  F.,  and  held  there  for  10  minutes. 

It  must  have  a  specific  gravity  of  between  33^  and  43°  Be. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  GASOLINE  AND  FUEL  OIL. 

Gasoline. — (Navy  Dept.,  Oct.  i,  1913.)  Gasoline  to  be  of  a 
high  grade,  refined,  and  free  from  all  impurities.  No  natural 
gas  gasolines  will  be  accepted,  nor  will  they  be  mixed  with  any 
gasoline  submitted  for  acceptance. 

Before  acceptance  the  gasoline  will  be  inspected.  Samples  of 
each  lot  will  be  taken  at  random ;  these  samples  will  be  well  mixed 
in  a  clean  closed  vessel,  and  a  sample  for  test  taken  from  this 
mixture. 

One  hundred  cc.  will  be  taken  as  a  test  sample.  This  amount 
will  be  distilled  in  an  Engler  apparatus  at  a  rate  of  not  less  than 
10  cc.  per  minute. 

Boiling  point  must  not  be  lower  than  130°  F. 

Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  sample  must  distill  below  275°  F. 

Ninety-five   per   cent.,   if   called   for,   must   distill   below 

340°  F. 

One  hundred  per  cent,  must  distill  below  360°  F. 
Not  less  than  98  per  cent,  of  the  liquid  will  be  recovered 
r  from  the  distillation. 

Five  cc.  of  the  sample,  when  poured  over  a  sheet  of  white 
paper,  shall  evaporate  completely  without  leaving  any  stain. 

The  apparatus  used  for  distillation  and  method  of  conducting 
the  test  shall  be  as  follows:  The  apparatus  shall  consist  of  a 
4-ounce  Engler  flask  with  outlet  high  on  neck.  The  top  of  the 
thermometer  shall  be  opposite  the  bottom  of  the  outlet  tube.  The 
condenser  shall  be  a  standard  2O-inch  lyiebig  type  of  condenser. 
The  boiling  point  will  be  the  temperature  shown  by  the  thermom- 
eter when  the  first  drop  of  the  condensed  liquid  falls  from  the 
end  of  the  condenser  into  the  receiving  flask.  The  distillation 
shall  be  pushed  to  completion,  at  which  time  the  bottom  of  the 
flask  shall  be  dry.  The  end  point  at  this  time  will  indicate  by  a 
small  flash  or  puff  of  smoke. 

(Details  also  given  for  weighing,  for  containers,  etc.) 


198  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

Light  Petroleum  Products  for  All  Uses.— (Norfolk  &  Western 
Railway,   Motive   Power  Dept,   Roanoke,  Va.,   Mar.   2,   1912.) 
The  materials  covered  by  this  specification  are  as  follows : 
88°  gasoline. 

Deodorized  gasoline  for  gas  engine  use. 
Deodorized  naphtha  or  benzine. 

88°  Gasoline. — This  material  to  be  a  high-grade,  refined  and 
deodorized  gasoline,  free  from  all  impurities. 

A  sample  will  be  taken  from  a  single  drum  of  a  shipment  and 
subjected  to  test.     Failure  to  conform  to  the  following  require- 
ments will  be  cause  for  rejection. 
Distillation  test,  Engler  apparatus  : 


Per  cent. 

°F. 

10 

90  to  loo 
90  to  no 

50 

125  to  130 

80 

165  to  170 

100 

190  to  195 

Evaporation  Test.  25  cc.  will  be  measured  into  a  weighed  thin 
glass  beaker,  the  beaker  immersed  in  hot  water,  and  allowed  to 
remain  until  complete  evaporation  of  the  gasoline  has  taken 
place.  An  increase  in  weight  of  the  beaker  after  this  operation 
in  excess  of  i  milligram  will  not  be  allowed. 

This  material  to  be  purchased  by  the  gallon  and  to  be  shipped 
in  steel  drums  of  approximately  55-  or  no-  gallon  capacity,  the 
drums  to  conform  to  all  requirements  specified  by  the  Bureau  for 
the  safe  transportation  of  explosives  and  inflammable  liquids, 
and  said  drums  shall  remain  the  property  of  the  shipper. 

Deodorized  Gasoline  for  Gas  Engine  Use. — This  material  to  be 
a  high  grade,  refined  and  deodorized  gasoline,  free  from  all 
impurities. 

A  y2 -gallon  sample  will  be  drawn  from. a  shipment  and  sub- 
jected to  test.  Failure  to  conform  to  the  following  requirements 
will  be  cause  for  rejection. 

Distillation  test,  Engler  apparatus : 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  GASOUNE  AND   FUFJ,   Oil, 


199 


Per  cent. 

cp 

above  i  'lo 

Rate  of  distillation  

CO 

below  240 

y 

100 

98 

below  320 
to  be  recovered 

Test  for  presence  of  heavy  non-volatile  oils;  25  cc.  will  be 
evaporated  to  a  bulk  of  approximately  5  cc.,  and  this  when  poured 
over  a  sheet  of  white  paper  shall  evaporate  completely  without 
leaving  a  stain. 

While  the  gravity  for  this  material  is  not  a  requirement,  pref- 
erence in  placing  orders  will  be  given  to  materials  having  a  grav- 
ity between  58°  and  62°  Be.  at  60°  F. 

In  entering  bids  for  this  material  parties  shall  submit  with 
their  price  the  specific  gravity  of  the  product  they  propose  fur- 
nishing, which  gravity  shall  be  maintained  by  them  with  an  al- 
lowable variation  of  2°  Be.  Failure  to  conform  to  this  require- 
ment will  be  a  cause  for  proper  deductions  from  the  charges 
made. 

This  material  to  be  purchased  by  the  gallon  and  shipment  to 
be  made  in  tank  cars,  unless  otherwise  stated  with  the  order. 

Deodorized  Naphtha  or  Benzine, — This  material  to  be  a  high 
grade  refined  and  deodorized  naphtha,  free  from  all  impurities. 

A  sample  will  be  taken  from  a  single  barrel  of  a  shipment  and 
subjected  to  test.  Failure  to  conform  to  the  following  require- 
ments will  be  cause  for  rejection. 

Distillation  test,  Engler  apparatus : 

Per  cent. 


IO 

180  to  260 

50 

95 
98 

285  to  290 
below  350 
to  be  recovered 

Test  for  the  presence  of  heavy  non-volatile  oils  (as  above). 
This  material  to  be  purchased  by  the  gallon,  and  to  be  shipped 
in  wooden  barrels  of  strong  and  tight  construction,  having  a 


200  .  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

capacity  of  about  50  gallons.    Barrels  to  become  the  property  of 
the  N.  &  W.  Railway  Co. 

The  apparatus  used  for  the  distillation  test(s)  and  the  method 
of  conducting  same  shall  be  as  follows :  The  apparatus  consists 
of  an  8-ounce  Engler  flask,  with  outlet  tube  set  in  at  an  angle  of 
75°  to  the  neck  and  approximately  mid-way  on  same.  The  ap- 
proximate dimensions  of  the  flask  are  as  follows : 


The  outlet  tube  will  be  approximately  15  centimeters  from 
bottom  of  flask.  The  thermometer  used  will  be  a  400°  F.,  long 
bulb  accurately  standardized  type,  readings  in  2°.  The  top  of 
the  thermometer  bulb  shall  be  opposite  the  bottom  of  the  outlet 
tube  in  making  distillations.  The  condensei  shall  be  an  ordinary 
2O-inch  L,iebig  type;  100  cc.  will  be  taken  for  a  determination. 
The  rate  of  distillation  will  be  approximately  10  cc.  (10  per  cent.) 
per  minute  for  the  first  eight  portions  of  10  cc.  The  boiling 
point  will  be  the  temperature  shown  when  the  first  drop  of  the 
condensed  liquid  falls  into  the  receiving  cylinder.  An  ordinary 
100  cc.  graduate  will  be  used  as  receiving  cylinder.  The  end 
point  in  the  distillation  will  be  indicated  by  a  small  flash  or  puff 
of  smoke. 

The  company  reserves  the  right  to  make  any  further  tests  that 
in  their  judgment  are  necessary  to  insure  to  them  that  the  mate- 
rials are  desirable  under  this  specification. 

All  materials  covered  by  this  specification  will  be  inspected 
and  tested  at  destination. 

Samples  representing  rejected  material  will  be  retained  in  the 
chemical  department  and  same  will  be  furnished  shippers  upon 
their  request.  Rejected  material  will  be  held  for  15  days  subject 
to  disposition  and  at  the  risk  of  the  shippers.  If,  at  the  end- of 
this  period,  shippers  have  not  advised  return  shipping  directions, 
the  material  will  be  returned  to  them,  they  paying  all  freight 
charges  both  ways. 

In  all  cases  of  rejection  it  shall  be  optional  with  the  purchasing 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  GASOLINE   AND   FUEL   Oil,  2OI 

agent  of  this  company  whether  the  order  shall  be  cancelled  or 
replacement  allowed. 

Petroleum  Products. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Motive 
Power  Dept.,  July  19,  1915.)  The  materials  desired  under  this 
specification  are  petroleum  or  the  products  of  its  distillation  angl 
refining,  unmixed  with  any  other  substance  and  conforming  to  the 
detailed  specifications  below: 

Gasoline. — Gasoline  should  be  water  white  in  color.  A  sample 
sufficiently  large  to  provide  for  the  following  tests,  taken  at 
random,  will  represent  the  shipment : 

1.  Gasoline  must  be  of  a  specific  gravity  not  less  than 

63°  Be. 

2.  A  portion  of  the  sample  must  be  entirely  volatile  at  a 

temperature  not  exceeding  100°  F. 

3.  When  blotting  paper  is  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of 

the  sample,  it  must  evaporate  entirely,  leaving  no 
greasy  stain. 

Fuel  Oil. — (Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway,  Motive  Power  Dept., 
Nov.  24,  1913.)  This  oil  or  "liquid  fuel"  is  crude  petroleum  as 
received  from  the  wells,  or  the  product  of  crude  petroleum,  dis- 
tilled or  reduced.  It  must  contain  no  sand  or  foreign  matter 
in  shape  of  sticks,  waste,  stones,  etc.,  and  must  be  sufficiently 
liquid  to  flow  readily  in  4-inch  pipes  at  a  temperature  of  70°  F. 

It  must  contain  as  little  water  as  possible,  and  oil  containing 
more  than  2  per  cent,  of  water  and  other  impurities  will  not  be 
accepted. 

Fuel  oil  will  be  paid  for  on  a  basis  of  volume  at  60°  F.,  also 
deducting  all  water  contained,  according  to  methods  outlined  as 
follows : 

One  sample  will  be  taken  from  each  carload  or  fraction  there- 
of. The  sampling  of  cars  is  to  be  made  with  car  thief  having 
valve  at  lower  end.  The  thief  with  open  valve  will  be  lowered 
gradually  into  car  and  valve  closed  at  instant  of  touching  bottom. 
The  thief  thus  filled  will  contain  oil  sample  to  be  tested  for 
water,  sand  and  B.  S.  (Bottom  Settlings). 

Oil  received  in  settling  or  storage  tanks  will  be  sampled  with 


202  AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 

Robinson  or  other  standard  thief,  a  sufficient  number  of  samples 
being  taken  to  secure  an  average  of  its  contents. 

Fuel  oil  will  not  be  accepted  for  general  use  whose  flash 
point  is  less  than  110°  F.  when  tested  by  the  open  cup,  Tag- 
liabue  method.  The  oil  to  be  heated  at  a  rate  of  5°  per  min- 
ute, and  test  flame  applied  every  5°,  beginning  at  90°. 

The  above  flash  point  being  the  danger  point  at  which  the 
oil  begins  to  give  off  inflammable  gas,  the  fire  or  burning 
point  is  not  required. 

The  test  for  water,  sand  and  B.  S.  will  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  100  cc.  of  the  sample  will  be  placed  in  a  250  cc.  grad- 
uated glass  cylinder  provided  with  stoppers,  and  thoroughly 
shaken  up  with  not  less  than  150  cc.  of  gasoline.  The  mix- 
'ture  will  be  heated  to  120°  F.,  for  from  3  to  6  hours  to 
facilitate  the  separation  of  impurities,  the  amount  of  which 
can  then  be  read  from  the  graduations  of  the  cylinder.  All 
proportion  of  water  and  other  impurities  contained  in  the 
sample  will  be  deducted  from  the  volume  contained  in  the 
car  and  not  paid  for. 

The  temperature  of  shipment  will  be  tested  directly  as 
sample  is  removed  from  sampling  tube,  or  by  immersion  of 
thermometer  in  the  receptacle  itself  for  not  less  than  I  min- 
ute. A  deduction  in  volume  for  expansion  at  temperature 
of  over  60°  F.  will  be  made  at  the  rate  of  1/25  of  I  per  cent, 
for  each  degree.  At  90°,  the  deduction  would  be  iy$  per 
cent.,  etc.  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  fuel  oil  furnished  from 
Sugar  Creek,  or  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  at  90°  should  have  a 
deduction  of  i%  per  cent. 

,  Gravity  of  fuel  oil  should  range  between  13°  and  29°  Be. 

at  60°  F. 

If  any  portion  of  an  accepted  shipment  is  subsequently  found 
to  be  damaged,  or  otherwise  inferior  to  the  original  sample,  that 
portion  will  be  returned  to  the  shipper  at  his  expense. 

Any  sample  failing  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  this  spec- 
ification will  be  condemned,  and  this  shipment  represented  by  it 
will  be  returned  to  the  manufacturer. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   GASOLINE   AND   FUEL   OIL  2O3 

In  cases  of  rejection  the  materials  will  be  held  for  two  weeks 
from  the  date  of  test.  If  by  the  end  of  that  period  the  manufac- 
turers have  not  given  shipping  directions,  it  will  be  returned 
to  them  at  their  risk,  they  paying  the  freight  both  ways. 

Fuel  Oil. — ("Specifications  for  the  Purchase  of  Fuel  Oils  for 
the  Government  with  Directions  for  Sampling  Oil  and  Natural 
Gas,"  Tech.  Paper  No.  3,  Bureau  of  Mines,  1911.)  General  spec- 
ifications for  the  purchase  of  fuel  oil : 

1.  In  determining  the  award  of  a  contract,  consideration  will 

be  given  to  the  quality  of  the  fuel  offered  by  the  bidders, 
as  well  as  the  price,  and  should  it  appear  to  be  to  the  best 
interest  of  the  Government  to  award  a  contract  at  a  higher 
price  than  that  named  in  the  lowest  bid  or  bids  received, 
the  contract  will  be  so  awarded. 

2.  Fuel  oil  should  be  either  a  natural  homogeneous  oil  or  a 

homogeneous  residue  from  a  natural  oil;  if  the  latter,  all 
constituents  having  a  low  flash  point  should  have  been  re- 
moved by  distillation ;  it  should  not  be  composed  of  a  light 
oil  and  a  heavy  residue  mixed  in  such  proportions  as  to 
give  the  density  desired. 

3.  It   should  not  have  been   distilled  at  a  temperature   high 

enough  to  burn  it,  nor  at  a  temperature  so  high  that  flecks 
of  carbonaceous  matter  began  to  separate. 

4.  It  should  not  flash  below  60°  C.  (140°  F.)  in  a  closed  Abel- 

Pensky  or  Pensky-Martens  tester. 

5.  Its  specific  gravity  should  range  from  0.85  to  0.96  at  15°  C. 

(59°  F.)  ;  the  oil  should  be  rejected  if  its  specific  gravity 
is  above  0.97  at  that  temperature. 

6.  It  should  be  mobile,  free  from  solid  or  semi-solid  bodies, 

and  should  flow  readily,  at  ordinary  atmospheric  tempera- 
tures and  under  a  head  of  I  foot  of  oil,  through  a  4-inch 
pipe  10  feet  in  length. 

7.  It  should  not  congeal  nor  become  too  sluggish  to  flow  at 

o°C.  (32°  F.). 


204  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

8.  It  should  have  a  calorific  value  of  not  less  than  10,000  cal- 

ories per  gram  (18,000  British  thermal  units  per  pound)  : 
10,250  calories  to  be  the  standard.  A  bonus  is  to  be  paid 
or  a  penalty  deducted  according  to  the  method  stated  under 
Section  21,  as  the  fuel  oil  delivered  is  above  or  below  this 
standard. 

9.  It  should  be  rejected  if  it  contains  more  than  2  per  cent. 

water. 

10.  It  should  be  rejected  if  it  contains  more  than  I  per  cent. 

sulphur. 

11.  It  should  not  contain  more  than  a  trace  of  sand,  clay,  or 

dirt. 

12.  Each  bidder  must  submit  an  accurate  statement  regarding 

the  fuel  oil  he  proposes  to  furnish.  (Details  also  given 
as  to  this  statement,  and  in  regard  to  sampling,  deliveries 
and  rejection.) 

See  also  Tech.  Paper  No.  37,  Bureau  of  Mines,  by  I.  C.  Allen, 
on  "Heavy  Oil  as  Fuel  for  Internal  Combustion  Engines." 

Fuel  Oil. —  (United  States  Navy  Specifications  for  the  fiscal 
year,  1916-17,  from  page  584  of  "Mineral  Resources,"  Pt.  II, 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.) 

(a)  Fuel  oil  shall  be  a  hydrocarbon  oil  of  best  quality,  free 

from  grit,  acid,  fibrous,  or  other  foreign  matter  likely 
to  clog  or  injure  the  burners  or  valves,  and  shall,  if  re- 
quired by  the  Navy  Department,  be  strained  by  being 
drawn  through  filters  of  wire  gauze  having  16  meshes  to 
the  inch.  The  clearance  through  the  strainer  shall  be  at 
least  twice  the  area  of  the  suction  pipe  and  strainers 
shall  be  in  duplicate. 

(b)  The  unit  of  quantity  to  be  the  barrel  of  42  gallons  of  231 

cubic  inches  at  a  standard  temperature  of  60°  F.  For 
every  decrease  or  increase  of  temperature  of  10°  F.  (or 
proportion  thereof)  from  the  standard,  0.4  of  i  per  cent, 
(or  prorated  percentage)  shall  be  added  or  deducted 
from  the  measured  or  gaged  quantity  for  correction. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  GASOUNE  AND  FUEL   Oil,  2O5 

(c)  Flash  point  never  under  150°  F.  as  a  minimum  (Abel  or 

Pensky-Marten's  closed  cup),  or  175°  F.  (Tagliabue 
open  cup),  and  not  lower  than  the  temperature  at  which 
the  oil  has  a  viscosity  of  8  Engler  (water  =  I  Engler). 
(Example:  If  an  oil  has  a  viscosity  of  8  Engler  when 
heated  to  186°  F.,  then  186°  F.  is  the  minimum  flash 
point  at  which  this  oil  will  be  accepted.) 

(d)  Viscosity  at  700°  F.  not  greater  than  2<xr  Engler. 

(e)  Water  and  sediment  not  over  I  per  cent.     If  in  excess  of 

i  per  cent.,  the  excess  to  be  subtracted  from  the  volume, 
or  the  oil  may  be  rejected. 

NOTE. — If  an  Engler  viscosimeter  is  not  available,  the  Saybolt 
standard  universal  viscosimeter  may  be  used,  and  300 
seconds  Saybolt  will  be  considered  equivalent  to  8  Eng- 
ler, and  7,500  seconds  Saybolt  will  be  considered  equiv- 
alent to  200  Engler. 

The  specification  under  (c)  above  is  so  drawn  because  it  is  con- 
sidered inadvisable  to  heat  oil  above  its  flash  point  when  burning 
it  with  mechanical  atomization  where  the  pressures  run  up  to  al- 
most 300  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  because  it  has  been  deter- 
mined, by  numerous  experiments  at  the  naval  fuel-oil  testing 
plant,  that  any  clean  oil  may  be  efficiently  burned  if  it  is  heated 
sufficiently  to  reduce  its  viscosity  to  8  Engler. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


GASOLINES. 

The  producers'  idea  of  gasoline  is  "anything  that  can  be  burned 
in  a  gasoline  engine."  The  increased  use  of  automobiles,  and  of 
internal  combustion  engines  generally,  has  resulted  in  such  a 
demand  for  light  petroleum  distillates  that  production  has  been 
severely  taxed.  Domestic  consumption  and  exports  have  in- 
creased without  any  corresponding  increase  in  oil  production. 
The  distillates  lighter  than  kerosene  have  ceased  to  be  a  cheap 
by-product  for  which  an  outlet  is  sought  and  has  become  one  of 
the  chief  products  of  petroleum  refining.  Instead  of  running  as 
much  of  the  light  distillate  as  possible  into  the  burning  oil  (kero- 
sene) as  formerly  practiced,  the  producers  now  incorporate  as 
much  of  the  light  kerosene  distillate  in  their  gasoline  as  the  pres- 
ent stage  of  automobile  engine  design  will  permit. 

When  the  gasoline  engine  first  became  a  commercial  success, 
gasoline  was  usually  rated  at  70°  Be.  or  higher.  As  the  demand 
for  light  distillates  increased,  the  gravity  was  necessarily  lowered, 
first  to  65°  Be.,  then  to  60°  Be.,  and  finally  (  ?)  to  55°  Be.  This 
change  has  been  rendered  necessary  as  the  amount  of  the  old 
type  of  gasoline  could  not  supply  the  trade  demand.  Fortunately, 
the  automobile  engine  has  developed  so  that  it  can  use  these 
heavier  distillates  successfully,  but  the  end  is  not  yet,  either  in 
lowering  of  the  gravity  for  motor  fuels  or  in  improved  auto- 
mobile engine  design.  The  real  solution  of  the  problem  is  as 
much  in  the  hands  of  the  motor  designer  as  in  the  hands  of  the 
gasoline  producer. 

In  order  to  increase  the  output  of  motor  fuels  to  meet  the  de- 
mand, several  new  types  of  gasoline  have  been  developed. 

Straight  refinery  gasoline,  the  old  type  of  gasoline,  is  made  by 
distilling  off  the  light  oils  already  existing  in  certain  crude  petro- 
leums, notably 'Pennsylvania  crudes,  the  product  being  distilled 
several  times  to  remove  the  heavy  oils  or  "tailings."  The  output 
of  this  grade  has  been  greatly  increased  by  including  more  of  the 
light  kerosene  distillate  as  explained  above. 


GASOUNES  2O7 

"Cracked"  gasoline,  or  synthetic  gasoline,  is  made  by  a  num- 
ber of  recently  patented  processes  (such  as  the  Burton  and  the 
Rittman  processes).  The  heavy  petroleum  oils  are  exposed  to 
very  high  temperatures,  either  in  the  liquid  or  the  gaseous  con- 
dition and  under  more  or  less  pressure,  so  that  the  heavy  oils 
decompose  into  oils  of  lower  boiling  points.  The  light  oils 
formed  by  this  decomposition  or  "cracking"  are  distilled  off  for 
motor  fuels,  the  product  being  similar  to  straight  refinery  gaso- 
line so  far  as  boiling  point,  or  power  production  is  concerned. 
The  cracked  gasolines  are  more  likely  to  have  undesirable  odors 
than  other  gasolines.  Over  3,000,000  barrels  of  gasoline  have 
been  made  in  a  single  year  by  the  Burton  "cracking"  process. 
Future  gasoline  supplies  must  necessarily  be  largely  "cracked" 
gasolines. 

Casing-head  gasoline  is  made  by  compression  of  natural  gas 
with  accompanying  refrigeration  or  absorption  in  petroleum  dis- 
tillates. The  straight  casing-head  gasoline  is  never  used  alone, 
on  account  of  its  high  volatility  and  high  cost,  but  is  used  to 
blend  with  distillates  too  heavy  to  use  alone  for  motor  fuels. 
About  10  per  cent,  of  the  present  production  of  gasoline  is  blended 
casing-head  gasoline.  By  blending  a  "blended  casing-head  gas- 
oline" with  other  gasolines  a  suitable  range  of  boiling  points  is 
secured. 

The  difference  in  power  possible  from  different  gasolines  is 
negligible  provided  the  gasoline  is  burned  completely  in  the 
motor,  and  the  gasolines  with  a  high  percentage  of  volatile  con- 
stituents and  no  "tailings"  or  heavy  oil  are  easiest  to  burn  com- 
pletely. The  low  boiling-point  constituents  of  the  gasoline  aid 
particularly  in  starting,  but  the  evaporation  loss  is  greater  and 
the  price  of  the  gasoline  is  higher  where  excessive  amounts  of 
these  light  oils  are  present.  The  best  gasolines  have  a  large  per- 
centage of  medium  boiling  constituents. 

The  following  analyses  of  gasolines  were  made  by  the  author 
in  1911.  Ninety-seven  per  cent,  was  recovered  in  the  distillation 
which  was  made  from  an  Engler  flask  at  the  rate  of  10  cc.  per 
minute. 


208 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


Sample  No. 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

IO 

Gravity  (°B  )  

60  t; 

fir   c 

62  8 

fir   c 

6?  8 

6/1    7 

Boiling  pt    (°C  )  • 

00.5 

»r 

go 

uo-5 

86 

8n 

60° 

68 

59-  l 
78 

°4»o 

Q? 

Distillate  to  ioo°C  •  • 

°o 
16 

26 

yu 
6Q 

y1 
16 

76 

?6 

rfi 

-28 

7° 

"             "    I2O°C    

71 

6A 

U7 

ou 

67 

ou 

77 

v>° 

87 

3° 

fic 

4^ 
76 

"           "    I40°C   • 

80 

87 

yz 
Q7 

w 

8^ 

// 
Q2 

X1 
QI 

°/ 

QA 

10 
QI 

°0 

88 

/° 

Q2 

VA 

y^ 

:7A 

V^ 

In  connection  with  the  tables  on  pages  209-210  (Bureau  of 
Mines  Tech.  Paper  No.  163)  it  may  be  noted  that  the  uncracked 
gasolines  gave  iodine  numbers  from  0.6  to  6.5  and  straight  cracked 
gasolines  gave  iodine  numbers  of  20  to  60.  Blended  gasolines 
containing  cracked  gasolines  gave  iodine  numbers  above  8  or  10. 
The  iodine  number  is  a  measure  of  the  unsaturated  hydrocar- 
bons present,  but  the  amount  of  unsaturated  hydrocarbons  can 
also  be  determined  roughly  by  shaking  20  cc.  of  gasoline  with 
20  cc.  of  sulphuric  acid  (1.84  specific  gravity,  or  94  per  cent.) 
and  noting  the  amount  of  gasoline  absorbed.  Gasolines  consisting 
largely  of  cracked  distillates  gave  absorptions  of  3  per  cent,  to  6 
per  cent. 

Volatility  is  the  most  important  property  of  a  gasoline  since 
vaporization  in  the  motor  is  necessary.  The  test  which  gives  the 
most  information  is  distillation  from  an  Engler  flask  of  100  cc. 
capacity,  distillation  being  conducted  at  the  rate  of  two  drops  per 
second  (4  to  5  cc.  per  minute)  using  an  ice-cooled  condenser,  and 
noting  the  temperatures  at  which  each  10  per  cent,  is  distilled, 
particularly  the  temperatures  at  which  20  per  cent,  and  90  per 
cent,  are  distilled,  and  the  temperature  at  which  the  distillation 
is  complete.  The  rate  of  heating  is  important  to  get  the  best 
results.  The  value  of  the  distillation  test  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
gives  a  direct  measure  of  the  vaporizing  power  of  the  gasoline. 


GASOLINES 


2O9 


SOME  ANALYSES  OF  GASOLINES 

Sold  During  1915 

(Tables  from  Bureau  of  Mines  Tech.  Paper  No.  163,  pp.  17-18. 
Results  of  tests  showing  volatility  ranges  of  typical  "straight"  refinery 
gasolines  from  Eastern,  Mid-continent,  and  California  fields. 

EASTERN   GASOLINE. 


Sample 
No. 

Commercial 
rating  of 
gasoline  (°B.) 

Actual  gravity 
as  determined 
by  test 

Percentage  distilled  at  temperatures  of  — 

Specific 
gravity 

°B. 

Up  to 

50°  c. 

so0  to 
75°  C. 

75°  to 
100°  C. 

100°  to 

12500- 

125°  to 
150°  C. 

150°  to 
175°  C. 

12 
13 
14 

(a,}  .. 

0.736 
0.718 
0.699 

60.2 

65.0 

70.3 

1.2 

3-5 

7.2 

4.4 
15-0 
33-0 

2O.  O 

39-2 
69.7 

59-o 
72.9 
91.2 

87.3 
91-5 

99-3 

99.5 

68°  to  70°  

"6° 

MID-CONTINENT   GASOLINE. 


17 

58°  to  60°  

Of  A  C 

C7    Q 

I  7 

7    A 

212 

CQ  Q 

7Q  A. 

no  g 

37 
18 

60°  to  62°  

O727 

62  6 

37 

Uf\ 

Al   A 

68  2 

79-4 
87  1 

Vo-u 
06  A. 

6° 

68°  to  70°  

O  7O1 

6Q  2 

8  6 

MA 

7O  4 

Q  [   2 

"/•O 

6y 

CALIFORNIA   GASOLINE. 


O74Q 

cfi   Q 

30 

12  6 

CT     T 

8l   Q 

QA  1 

49 

O  711 

50-9 
61  o 

.\j 
i  8 

16  i 

4  c   c 

01.9 
71  8 

74'O 
Q/l   I 

ou 

U-/OO 

y4-  x 

(a)  Rated  as  "motor"  gasoline. 

Results  showing  specific  gravity  and  volatility  ranges  of  blended  casing- 
head  and  "straight"  refinery  gasolines  from  the  eastern  markets. 

BLENDED   CASING-HEAD   GASOLINE. 


Sample 
No. 

Commercial 
rating 
(OB.) 

Actual  gravity 
as  determined 
by  test 

Percentage  distilled  at  temperatures  of  — 

Specific 
gravity 

°B. 

Up  to 
50  °C. 

50°  to 
75°  C. 

75°  to 
100°  C. 

100°  to 
i25°C. 

125°  to 
150°  C. 

150°  to 
175°  C. 

15 
16 

17 

60°  to  65°  

68°  to  70°  
76° 

0-733 
0.706 
0.687 

61.0 
68.3 
73-8 

7-9 
I6.7 
30.8 

16.8 
32.1 
49.1 

33-2 

53-o 
64.4 

56.6 

75-1 
78.1 

78.5 

88.2 
88.8 

93-5 

/°     • 

"STRAIGHT"    REFINERY   GASOLINE. 


I 

60°  to  65°  

0.724 

63-4 

0.0 

2.2 

33-8 

75-5 

94-4 

2 

68°  U>V°  

0.703 

69.2 

3-5 

27.6 

67,5 

90.6 

99.1 



3 

74°  to  76°  

0.684 

74-7 

14-5 

46.2 

78.3 

95-1 

— 

210 


AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 


Results  showing  calorific  value,  power  developed  in  engine  tests,  spe- 
cific gravity,  and  percentage  of  sulphur  in  various  typical  gasolines  from 
Mid-continent  and  Eastern  fields. 


Sam- 
ple 

No. 

Field  from  which 
sample  was 
obtained 

Process  of  manu- 
facture 

Gravity 

Calorific  value 
of  gasoline 

Power 
devel- 
oped, 
horse- 
power- 
hours 
per  Ib. 
of  gas- 
oline. 

Sul- 
phur 
content 

Per 
cent. 

Specific 
gravity 

°B. 

Calor- 
ies per 
gram. 

B.  t.  u. 
per 
pound 

22 

26 

43 
13 
19 

38 

15 

i 

34 
9 

Mid-cotitinent  • 
do 

do 
Eastern 
Mid-continent  • 
do 

Cracking  plant 
"Straight"  re- 

0-745 

0.742 

0-733 
0.718 
0.724 
0.727 

0-733 

0.724 

0.715 
0.687 

57-9 

58.7 
61.0 
65.0 

63.4 
62.6 

6r.o 

63.4 
65.8 
73-8 

11,165 

11,174 
11,180 
11,187 
11,215 
11,221 

11,230 

11,236 
11,250 
H,3I5 

20,097 

20,113 
20,124 
20,137 
20,187 
20,198 

20,214 

20,225 

20,250 
20,367 

1-345 

1.403 
i.35o 

1.405 

1-395 
1.396 

1.376 

1.420 
1-365 

1.487 

O.O2 

o.or 
0.05 
0.04 

0.05 
0.03 

0.03 
0.03 

O.O2 
O.O2 

do 
do 
do 
do 
Blended  casing- 

do 
Mid-continent  . 

"Straight"  re- 

do 
do 

The  gravity  test  is  the  most  widely  used  commercial  test.     It 
gives  indications  of  value  and  is  easily  made. 

Proposed  Specifications  for  Motor  Gasoline. — (Bureau  of  Mines 
Tech.  Paper,  No.  166,  p.  19.) 

Color.     Requirement. — Water  white. 

Method  of  Determination. — Inspection  of  column  in  4- 

ounce  sample  bottle. 
Acidity.    Requirement. — Total  absence. 

Method  of  Determination. — Ten  cc.  of  the  gasoline  is 
to  be  shaken  thoroughly  with  5  cc.  of  distilled  water. 
The  aqueous  extract  must  not  color  blue  litmus 
pink. 

Volatility.  Requirements. — The  gasoline  shall,  when  distilled 
by  the  method  described  hereafter,  meet  the  fol- 
lowing requirements : 

(a)  The  temperature  read  on  the  thermometer  when  20 
per  cent,  has  distilled  shall  not  be  below  70°  C. 
(158°  F.)  nor  above  whatever  limit  is  fixed  after 
due  consideration  of  conditions  of  use. 


GASOUNES  211 

(b)  The  temperature  read  when  90  per  cent,  has  distilled 

shall  not  be  above  another  limit  similarly  chosen. 

(c)  The  temperature  read  when  50  per  cent,  has  distilled 

shall  not  be  higher  than  a  mark  half  way  between 
the  20  per  cent,  and  the  90  per  cent,  limit. 

(d)  The  dry  point  shall  not  exceed  the  actual  90  per  cent. 

reading  by  more  than  55°  C.  (99°  F.). 

Tolerance. — If  either  the  20  per  cent,  or  the  90  per  cent, 
temperature  mark  is  above  the  required  limit  by  an 
amount  not  exceeding  10°  C.  (18°  F.),  the  gasoline 
may  be  considered  acceptable  if  the  sum  of  the  two 
temperatures  read  for  the  20  and  the  90  per  cent, 
marks  do  not  exceed  the  sum  of  the  adopted  limits. 
(The  distillation  method  and  apparatus  are  minutely  de- 
scribed. The  Engler  flask  is  used  with  100  cc.  of 
gasoline  and  the  heat  applied  so  that '4  to  5  cc. 
distil  per  minute.) 

Gasoline  for  Special  Uses. — Gasoline,  for  use  as  a  solvent  where 
the  gasoline  is  recovered,  should  be  free  from  heavy  boiling  con- 
stituents, that  is,  have  a  low  end  point  on  distillation.  Also  gas- 
oline for  cleaning  purposes  should  be  volatile  and  free  from 
"tailings"  as  shown  by  distillation. 

For  actual  specifications  of  commercial  gasoline,  see  Index. 

Fuel  Oils. — For  specifications,  see  Index.  For  the  calorific 
power  of  liquid  fuels  of  different  specific  gravities  see  Sherman 
and  Kropff,  7.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.,  pp.  1626-1631  (1908). 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


KEROSENE. 

Kerosene  usually  distils  between  150°  and  300°  C.  (302°  to 
572°  F.)  under  atmospheric  pressure,  and  has  a  gravity  of  42° 
to  47°  Be.  For  general  illuminating  purposes,  kerosene  should 
be  free  from  very  light  oils  as  shown  by  the  flash  test,  free  from 
heavy  oils  as  shown  by  the  distillation  test,  and  free  from  sulphur 
and  other  encrusting  substances  as  shown  by  a  prolonged  burn- 
ing test. 

The  flash  test  is  usually  taken  with  the  Tagliabue  open  cup, 
the  best  grade  of  oil  being  called  "150°  fire  test"  "water  white" 
oil.  The  oil  is  sold  largely  by  fire  test,  Baume  gravity  and  color. 

Many  States  have  inspection  laws,  usually  for  safety  only,  and 
specify  the  flash  test  in  the  open  or  closed  cup.  The  flash  test 
at  100°  F.  in  the  Elliott  closed  cup  (so-called  New  York  State 
Board  of  Health  tester)  is  specified  in  a  number  of  states,  with 
or  without  a  gravity  requirement.  The  flash  point  in  the  Elliott 
closed  cup  is,  for  kerosene,  some  21°  F.  lower  than  the  Tagliabue 
flash  test  (open  cup),  and  41°  F.  lower  than  the  Tagliabue  fire 
test. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  put  in  more  accessible 
form  some  results  of  analyses  made  by  him  (Supp.  Bull,  of  the 
N.  C.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Sept.,  1910;  Sept.,  1911;  and  June,  1912). 
The  following  is  from  the  Bulletin  for  1910: 

"A  comparison  of  58  oils  was  made  after  classifying  on  the  basis  of 
6  per  cent,  residue  after  distillation  by  the  continuous  Engler  method: 


Residue  at  57o°F. 

Iyess  than 
6* 

More  than 
6* 

18 

Candle-power  (after  /^  hour)  

7  QI 

6° 
7  62 

7   IO 

6  2T. 

Orop  in  candle-power  (  %  )  

W«*J 

18  6 

Viscosity  at  68°F    (Engler)  

*••*/ 

"Of  the  low-residue  oils  only  one  gave  as  much  as  15  per  cent,  drop 
in  candle-power.  Of  the  38  high-residue  oils  58  per  cent,  gave  more  than 
15  per  cent,  drop  in  the  7  hours. 


KEROSENE  213 

"The  photometric  method  was  similar  to  that  recommended  by  the 
International  Committee.  Glass  lamps  were  used.  The  reservoirs  were 
cylindrical  with  flat  bottoms  and  held  about  325  cc.  The  initial  oil  level 
was  6  cm.  below  the  top  of  the  wick  tube  and  the  drop  in  oil  level  was 
usually  40  mm.  (1.6  in.)  during  the  total  burning  period  of  7l/2  hours. 
A  No.  I  "Model"  burner  and  Macbeth  chimney  No.  502  were  used.  New 
American  wicks,  recently  dried  for  I  hour  at  110°  C.  were  used  each 
time.  The  lamps  were  allowed  to  stand  over  night  after  filling  and 
trimming. 

"The  illuminating  power  was  determined  after  burning  y2  hour  and 
again  7  hours  later.  During  the  first  *4  hour  after  lighting  the  flames 
were  turned  up  to  the  highest  safe  limit  and  were  not  again  disturbed. 
The  oil  was  kept  at  a  constant  temperature  of  80°  to  85°  F.  by  immersing 
in  running  water.  Usually  about  40  cc.  of  oil  remained  in  the  lamp  at 
the  last  measurement.  The  measurements  were  made  with  a  Reichsanstalt 
photometer  using  a  standardized  Hefner  lamp.  The  Hefner  unit  was 
taken  as  equal  to  0.90  candle-power  and  never  varied  more  than  0.5  per 
cent,  on  account  of  humidity.  Each  reading  was  made  five  times  Many 
of  the  photometric  tests  were  made  in  duplicate. 

"The  oils  analyzed  were  chosen  on  account  of  some  special  feature, 
such  as  marked  color,  high  or  low  viscosity,  high  specific  gravity,  etc., 
or,  as  in  a  number  of  cases,  simply  to  get  a  sample  of  as  many  brands 
as  possible. 

"Only  17  per  cent,  of  the  134  samples  passing  the  flash  test  gave  any 
distillate  below  150°  C.  Seven  oils  gave  less  than  15  per  cent,  distillate 
below  200°  C.  Six  others  gave  from  15  to  19  per  cent,  distillate  below 
200°  C.  Eight  oils  gave  more  than  40  per  cent,  distillate  below  200°  C." 
(The  flash  test  requirement  was  100°  F.  flash,  or  over,  in  the  Ellicott 
closed  cup.) 

As  a  result  of  the  above  tests,  a  residue  requirement  was 
adopted  by  the  State  of  "not  more  than  6  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
residue  remaining  undistilled  at  570°  F.  *  *  *  except  that 
oils  of  not  less  than  47°  Be.  at  60°  F.  shall  not  contain  more 
than  10  per  cent,  of  residue  by  weight." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  subsequent  tests  (reported  Sept., 
1911)  of  41  different  samples,  representing  over  30  different 
brands  of  kerosene,  only  four  showed  as  much  as  15  per  cent, 
drop  in  candle-power  in  12  hours'  burning,  the  maximum  drop 
being  24.8  per  cent,  in  12  hours,  against  65.1  per  cent,  maxi- 
mum drop  for  the  /  hours  in  the  first  series.  Also  two  of  these 
four  bad  oils  had  6  per  cent,  and  8.9  per  cent,  residue  undistilled 


214  AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 

at  570°  F.  The  method  of  making  the  burning  test  in  this  case 
was  as  follows :  "The  candle-power  was  measured  at  the  end 
of  the  first  and  twelfth  hours  after  lighting,  using  as  a  comparison 
light  a  standard  electric  bulb  at  4  watts  per  candle-power.  The 
lamp  had  a  glass  reservoir  of  600  cc.  capacity  and  was  fitted  with 
a  No.  i  sun-hinge  burner  and  a  No.  27  Macbeth  chimney.  No.  I 
American  wicks  recently  dried  were  allowed  to  soak  in  the  oil 
over  night.  The  oil  level  dropped  30  millimeters  during  the  burn- 
ing period.  Over  150  cc.  of  oil  remained  at  the  end  of  each  test. 
Duplicate  tests  were  made  on  most  of  the  samples.  The  Marcy 
patent  burner  was  found  unsuited  for  this  work  unless  a  much 
longer  burning  period  were  adopted." 

"With  the  exception  of  one  sample,  the  distillation  began  at 
150°  to  160°  C.  and  the  distillate  below  200°  C.  varied  from  26 
per  cent,  to  45  per  cent."  After  the  adoption  of  the  6  per  cent, 
residue  test,  the  minimum  amount  of  oil  distilling  below  250°  C. 
increased  from  39  per  cent,  to  68  per  cent.,  the  maximum  being 
85  per  cent. 

Five  of  the  41  oils  gave  more  than  0.050  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 
The  amount  of  sulphur  varied  from  o.ooi  per  cent,  to  0.086  per 
cent.,  the  sulphur  being  determined  gravimetrically  after  burning 
the  oil  and  wick  completely. 

Cracked  oils  may  be  shown  by  the  iodine  number.  The  Hanus 
iodine  number  for  a  i-gram  sample  was  from  7.2  to  25.2. 

The  viscosity  can  be  used  as  a  quick  means  for  locating  oils 
which  would  have  high  residues  at  570°  F.  The  Engler- 
Ubbelohde  viscosimeter  for  illuminating  oils  was  found  more 
suitable  for  this  work  than  the  regular  Engler  apparatus.  Before 
adoption  of  the  6  per  cent,  residue  requirement,  viscosities  ran 
as  high  as  1.26  Engler;  afterwards  the  range 'was  from  1.07  to 
1.13,  the  average  being  slightly  below  1.09.  (1.07  to  1.13  Engler 
is  equivalent  to  1.39  to  1.63  Engler-Ubbelohde  viscosity.)  Low 
viscosity  oils  never  show  high  residues  on  distillation. 

Suggestions  for  Specifications. — (a)  Safety. — Take  the  flash 
point  with  the  Elliott  closed  cup  or  with  the  Abel-Pensky  appa- 
ratus. Sufficient  safety  will  be  attained  by  95°  to  100°  F.  flash 
in  these  cups,  or  140°  to  150°  F.  fire  test  in  the  open  cup.  There 


KEROSENE  215 

is  no  advantage  in  specifying  both  flash  test  and  fire  test,  nor 
should  a  minimum  boiling  point,  or  a  maximum  distillate  to  a 
given  temperature,  ordinarily  be  specified. 

(b)  Degree  of  Refining. — The  oil  should  be  well-refined  and 
water  white.    A  well-refined  oil  will  not  usually  have  as  much  as 
0.04  per  cent,  sulphur  and  will  not  show  a  marked  color  when 
shaken  for  two  minutes  with  sulphuric  acid  of  1.73  specific  grav- 
ity.   As  the  burning  test  for  a  long  period  will  show  the  practical 
degree  of  refining,  by  the  amount  of  encrustation  on  the  wick, 
no  extended  tests  for  refining  are  usually  necessary. 

(c)  Inherent  Character  of  the  Oil. — The  oil  will  be  distilled 
from  an  Engler  flask  at  the  rate  of  two  drops  per  second,  atten- 
tion being  paid  to  the  quantity  distilling  below  200°  and  250°  C. 
(The  best  oils  give  over  30  per  cent,  distillate  at  200°  and  over 
75  per  cent,  distillate  at  250°  C.  when  distilled  at  the  rate  of  two 
drops  per  second.)     The  residue  must  not  exceed  5  per  cent,  by 
weight  at  300°  C.,  except  that  oils  of  over  46.5°  Be.  may  show 
up  to  8  per  cent,  of  such  residue.    Large  amounts  of  the  lighter 
oils    improve    the    candle-power    and    the    burning    qualities. 
"Cracked"  oils  are  not  desired,   so  the   Hanus  iodine  number 
should  be  below  15  on  a  i-gram  sample.     The  gravity  must  not 
be  below  42°  Be. 

(d)  Burning  Quality. — The  oil  must  not  show  more  than  a 
specified  drop  in  candle-power .(12  per  cent.),  or  drop  in  flame 
height   (l/4   inch),  under  specified  conditions  of  burning  for  a 
period  of  24  to  72  hours.    The  condition  of  the  flame  as  well  as 
its  size  will  be  noted  at  the  end  of  the  burning  test  and  no  hard 
ash,  crust,  gum  or  cinders  shall  have  formed  on  the  wick.     A 
long  burning  period  with  the  burner  to  be  used  in  service  gives 
the  most  information.     Ordinarily  a  photometric  test  will  not 
be  necessary  as  a  drop  of  10  to  15  per  cent,  in  candle-power  is 
readily  apparent  to  the  eye.    The  distillation  test  and  the  burning 
test  will  be  given  special  weight. 

For  specifications  of  kerosene  and  other  burning  oils,  see  Index. 

Kerosene  for  kerosene  engines,   such  as  tractor  engines,  etc., 
is  usually  burned  by  preheating  the  fuel  charge  before  admission 


216  AMERICAN  LUBRICANTS 

into  the  cylinder.  Sometimes  steam  is  introduced  with  the  charge 
so  as  to  facilitate  combustion  and  to  keep  the  cylinder  clean.  By 
preheating  the  charge  of  kerosene,  vaporization  is  more  nearly 
complete,  though  part  of  the  kerosene  remains  as  a  finely  atomized 
liquid  and  is  burned  rather  than  exploded.  The  explosion  range 
for  kerosene  vapor  mixed  with  air  is  much  lower  than  with  gaso- 
line vapor  and  air,  consequently  the  carburetor  must  be  more 
carefully  adjusted  in  order  to  give  the  proper  explosive  mixture. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


TABLES. 

i.  Viscosity   Tables,   Showing  Relation   of   Saybolt   Time  to 
Engler  Number. 


2.  Tables  for  Converting  Baume  Gravity  to  Specific  Gravity, 
Etc. 


3.  Table  Showing  Baume  Gravity  Corrections  for  Tempera- 

ture Above  60°  F. 

4.  Table  of  Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  Degrees. 

5.  Wholesale  Prices  of  Oils  and  Heavy  Chemicals. 

6.  Petroleum  Statistics. 


VISCOSITY  TABLES. 

Showing  the  relation  of  Saybolt  Time  to  Engler  Number.  Calculated  from  work 
done  at  the  Bureau  of  Standards  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Waidner.  (Cf.  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Test.  Mat., 
15,  p.  284,  1915,  and  Tables  by  Mcllhiney,  J.  Ind.  &  Eng.  Ckem.,  8,  p.  434,  1916.) 

NOTE: — These  tables  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  most  commercial  purposes.  They 
are  offered  as  being  the  latest  and  the  best  available  until  the  publication  of  further 
work  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  on  the  standardization  and  comparison  of  the  two  vis- 
cosimeters. 


<u 

^a 
si 

a 

3  *~? 
fc  M 

fco~ 

l£« 

g££ 

S3   " 

-Sh  9, 

fil« 

i 

>> 

$ 

<v 

"Si 

C 

W 

i 

>> 

% 

OJ 

"5 
& 

o 

,Q 

>> 

4 

V 

"3o 

a 
W 

i 

>> 

8 
03 

u 

"So 

W 

"o 
I 

& 
"So 

W 

40 

.32 

83 

2.36 

126 

3-44 

169 

4-54 

2f3 

5.69 

257 

6.85 

41 

•35 

84 

2.39 

127 

3-46 

170 

4-56 

214 

5-7J 

258 

6.88 

42 

•37 

85 

2.41 

128 

3-49 

171 

4-59 

215 

5-74 

259 

6.91 

43 

.40 

86 

2.44 

129 

3-5i 

172 

4.62 

216 

5-77 

260 

6.94 

44 

•42 

87 

2.46 

130 

3-54 

173 

4.64 

217 

5-79 

261 

6.96 

45 

•45 

88 

2.49 

131 

3.56 

174 

4.67 

218 

5-82 

262 

6-99 

46 

•47 

89 

2.51 

132 

3-59 

175 

4.69 

219 

5-85 

263 

7.01 

47 

.50 

90 

2.54 

T33 

3-6i 

170 

4-72 

220 

5-87 

264 

7.04 

48 

•  52 

91 

2.56 

134 

3-64 

177 

4-75 

221 

5-90 

265 

7.07 

49 

•55 

92 

2.59 

135 

3-67 

178 

4-77 

222 

5-93 

266 

7.09 

5° 

•57 

93 

2.61 

136 

3-69 

179 

4.80 

223 

5-95 

267 

7.12 

51 

•59 

94 

2.64 

137 

3-72 

180 

4.82 

224 

5.98 

268 

7.15 

52 

.62 

95 

2.66 

138 

3-74 

181 

4.85 

225 

6.01 

269 

7.17 

53 

.64 

96 

2.69 

139 

3-77 

182 

4.88 

226 

6.03 

270 

7.20 

54 

.67 

97 

2.71 

140 

3-79 

183 

4.90 

227 

6.06 

271 

7-23 

55 

•69 

98 

2.74 

141 

3.82 

184 

4-93 

228 

6.09 

272 

7-25 

56 

•  72 

99 

2.76 

142 

3-85 

185 

4-95 

229 

6.12 

273 

7.28 

57 

•  74 

loo 

279 

1  43 

3-87 

1  86 

4.98 

230 

6.14 

274 

7-31 

58 

.76 

101 

2.81 

144 

3-90 

187 

5-01 

23I 

6.17 

275 

7-33 

59 

•79 

102 

2.84 

H5 

3-92 

1  88 

5.03 

232 

6.19 

276 

7.36 

60 

.81 

I03 

2.86 

146 

3-95 

189 

5.o6 

233 

6.22 

277 

7-39 

61 

-84 

104 

2.88 

147 

3-97 

190 

5.o8 

234 

6.25 

278 

7-41 

62 

.86 

105 

2.91 

148 

4.00 

191 

5-II 

235 

6.27 

279 

7-44 

63 

.88 

1  06 

2-93 

149 

4.02 

192 

5-13 

236 

6.30 

280 

7-47 

64 

•91 

I07 

2.96 

150 

4-o5 

193 

5-i6 

237 

6-33 

281 

7-49 

65 

•93 

1  08 

2.99 

151 

4.08 

194 

5-19 

238 

6-35 

282 

7-52 

66 

i-95 

I09 

3.01 

'52 

4.10 

195 

5-21 

239 

6.38 

283 

7-55 

67 

1.98 

110 

3-°4 

153 

4-13 

196 

5-24 

240 

6.41 

284 

7-57 

68 

2.OO 

III 

3-o6 

154 

4-15 

197 

5-26 

241 

6-43 

285 

7.60 

69 

2.03 

112 

3-09 

155 

4.18 

198 

5-29 

242 

6.46 

286 

7-63 

70 

2.05 

H3 

3-n 

156 

4.20 

199 

5-31 

243 

6.48 

287 

7-65 

7i 

2.07 

114 

3-14 

157 

4-23 

200 

5-34 

244 

6.51 

288 

7.68 

72 

2.10 

U5 

3-16 

158 

4-25 

201 

5-37 

245 

653 

289 

7-71 

73 

2.12 

116 

3-19 

159 

4.28 

202 

5-39 

246 

6.56 

290 

7-73 

74 

2.14 

117 

3.21 

r  60 

4-3° 

203 

5-42 

247 

6.58 

291 

7.76 

75 

2.17 

118 

3-24 

161 

4-33 

204 

5-45 

248 

6.61 

292 

7-79 

76 

2.19 

119 

3-26 

162 

4-36 

205 

5-47 

249 

6.64 

293 

7.81 

77 

2.22 

120 

3-29 

163 

4-38 

206 

5-50 

250 

6.67 

294 

7-84 

78 

2.24 

121 

3-31 

164 

4.41 

207 

5-53 

251 

6.69 

295 

7.87 

79 

2.27 

122 

3-34 

165 

4-43 

208 

5-55 

252 

6.72 

296 

7.8-9 

80 

2.29 

123 

3.36 

166 

4.46 

209 

5.58 

253 

6-75 

297 

7.92 

8r 

2.31 

124 

3-39 

167 

4-49 

210 

5-6i 

254 

6.77 

298 

7-95 

82 

2-34 

125 

3-4i 

168 

4-51 

211 

5-63 

255 

6.80 

299 

7-97 

212 

566 

256 

6.83 

300 

8.00 

To  change  higher  Saybolt  time  to  Engler  numbers  multiply  Saybolt  time  by  0.0267. 
To  change  higher  Engler  numbers  to  Saybolt  time  multiply  Engler  numbers  by  37.5.  To 
change  Saybolt  time  to  Redwood  time  multiply  Saybolt  time  by  0.84  (accurate  for  oils 
with  viscosity  above  100  Saybolt.) 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  BAUME  GRAVITY  TO  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  ETC. 
( Calculated  from  Bureau  of  Standards  Circular  No.  57;  based  on  the  formula: 


Sp.  gr.  at  60°  F  = 


140 


130  -|-  deg.  Be". 


Degrees 
Baum£ 
(Modulus 
140). 

Specific 

<Sw>F. 

Pounds 
per 
gallon 

Gallons 
per 
pound 

Degrees 
Baum£ 
(Modulus 
140). 

Specific 
gravity 

6o°/6o°F. 

Pounds 
per 
gallon 

Gallons 
per 
pound 

IO.O 

I.OOOO 

8.328 

O.  I2OI 

50.0 

0.7778 

6.476 

0.1544 

II.  0 

0.9929 

8.269 

O.I2O9 

51.0 

0-7735 

6.440 

0.1533 

12.0 

0.9859 

8.2II 

o.  1218 

52.0 

0.7692 

6.404 

0.1562 

13.0 

0.9790 

8.153 

0.1227 

S3-0 

0.7650 

6.369 

0.1570 

I4.O 

0.9722 

8.096 

0.1235 

54-0 

0.7609 

6-334 

0-1579 

15-0 

0.9655 

8.041 

0.1244 

55-0 

0.7568 

6.300 

0.1587 

16.0 

0.9589 

7.986 

0.1252 

56.0 

0.7527 

6.266 

0.1596 

17.0 

0.9524 

7.931 

O.I26I 

57-o 

0.7487 

6.233 

0.1604 

18.0 

0.9459 

7.877 

0.1270 

58.0 

0.7447 

6.199 

0.1613 

19.0 

0.9396 

7.825 

0.1278 

59-o 

0.7407 

6.166 

0.1622 

2O.O 

0.9333 

7.772 

0.1287 

60.0 

0.7368 

6.134 

0.1630 

21.0 

0.9272 

7.721 

0.1295 

61.0 

0-7330 

6.IO2 

0.1639 

22.0 

0.9211 

7.670 

o.  T3°4 

62.0 

0.7292 

6.070 

0.1647 

23.0 

0.9150 

7.620 

0.1313 

63.0 

0.7254 

6.038 

0.1656 

24.O 

0.9091 

7.570 

0.1321 

64.0 

0.7216 

6.007 

o.  1665 

25-0 

0.9032 

7.522 

0.1330 

65.0 

0.7179 

5-976 

0.1673 

26.0 

0.8974 

7.473 

0.1338 

66.0 

o.7i43 

5-946 

0.1682 

27.0 

0.8917 

7.425 

o.i347 

67.0 

0.7107 

5.916 

0.1690 

28.0 

0.8861 

7.378 

o.i355 

68.0 

0.7071 

5-886 

0.1699 

29.0 

0.8805 

7.332 

0.1364 

69.0 

0-7035 

5-856 

0.1708 

30.0 

0.8750 

7.286 

0.1373 

70.0 

0.7000 

5-827 

0.1716 

31.0 

0.8696 

7.241 

0.1381 

71.0 

0.6965 

5.798 

o  1725 

32.0 

0.8642 

7.196 

0.1390 

72.0 

06931 

5-769 

0.1733 

33-° 

0.8589 

7.152 

0.1398 

73-o 

0.6897 

5-741 

0.1742 

34-0 

0.8537 

7.108 

0.1407 

74.0 

0.6863 

5-712 

0.1751 

35-o 

0.8485 

7.065 

0.1415 

75.o 

0.6829 

5-685 

0.1759 

36.0 

0.8434 

7.022 

0.1424 

76.0 

0.6796 

5.657 

0.1768 

37-0 

0.8383 

6.980 

0.1432 

77-0 

0.6763 

5-629 

0.1776 

38.0 

0.8333 

6.939 

0.1441 

78.0 

0.6731 

5.602 

0.1785 

39-0 

0.8284 

6.898 

0.1450 

79.0 

0.6699 

5.576 

0.1793 

40.0 

0.8235 

6.857 

0.1459 

80.0 

0.6667 

5-549 

0.1802 

41.0 

0.8187 

6.817 

0.1467 

Si.o 

0.6635 

5-522 

0.1811 

42.0 

0.8140 

6.777 

0.1476 

82.0 

0.6604 

5.497 

0.1819 

43-o 

0.8092 

6.738 

o.  1484 

83.0 

0.6573 

5-471 

0.1828 

44.0 

0.8046 

6.699 

o.i493 

84.0 

0.6542 

5-445 

0.1837 

45-o 

0.8000 

6.661 

0.1501 

85.0 

0.6512 

5.420 

0.1845 

46.0 

0.7955 

6.623 

0.1510 

86.0 

0.6482 

5-395 

o.  1854 

47.0 

o.  79  1  o 

6.586 

0.1518 

87.0 

0.6452 

5-370 

0.1862 

48.0 

0.7865 

6.548 

0.1527 

88.0 

0.6422 

5-345 

o.  1871 

49-o 

0.7821 

6.511 

0.1536 

89.0 

0.6393 

5-320 

0.1880 

NOTE:  — Another  hydrometer  widely  used  in  the  oil  trade  is  based  on  a 
different  formula:    Sp.  gr.  at  6o°F.  =  —  —^ fp~'    Such  readings  are 

too  high  by  0.1°  to  0.2°  Be.  for  lubricating  oils,  0.3°  to  0.4°  Be.  for  kerosene 
and  0.5°  to  0.7°  Be.  for  gasolines. 


22O 


AMERICAN    LUBRICANTS 


TABLE  SHOWING  BAUME  GRAVITY  CORRECTIONS  FOR  TEMPERATURES 
ABOVE  6o°F.     (Compiled  from  Bureau  of  Standards  Circular  No.  57.) 

This  table  gives  the  corrections  to  he  subtracted  from  the  observed  de- 
grees Baume  of  lubricating  oils,  etc.,  to  obtain  the  true  degrees  Baume*  at 
6o°F.  (modulus  140. ) 


Observed 
tempera- 
ture 

Observed  Degrees  Baum£ 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

Subtract  from  observed  degrees  Baume  to  give  true  degrees  Baume  at  60°  F. 

60 

0.0 

o.o 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

o.o 

o.o 

o.o 

O.O 

o.o 

62 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

O.I 

64 

0.2 

O.2 

O.2 

0.2 

0.2 

o-3 

o-3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3' 

0.3 

66 

0-3 

o-3 

0-3 

o-3 

°-3 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

0.4 

68 

0.4 

0.4 

°-5 

°-5 

0-5 

o-5 

0.5 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

70 

0-5 

0.5 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.7 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

72 

0.6 

0.6 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

09 

0.9 

74 

0.7 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

0.8 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

I.O 

i.i 

76 

0.8 

0.8 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

I.O 

.0 

I.I 

.1 

1.2 

1.2 

78 

0.9 

0.9 

I.O 

i.i 

i.i 

i.i 

.2 

1.2 

.2 

1-3 

1.4 

80 

I.O 

.1 

.1 

1.2 

1.2 

1.2 

•3 

i-3 

•3 

1.4 

1-5 

82 

.1 

.2 

.2 

i-3 

•3 

1-3 

•4 

1.4 

•5 

1-5 

1.6 

84 

•3 

•3 

•3 

1.4 

•4 

i.S 

•  5 

1-5 

.6 

i-7 

1.8 

86 

•4 

•4 

•4 

1.5 

-5 

1.6 

.6 

i-7 

.8 

1.8 

1.9 

88 

•5 

-5 

.6 

1.6 

•  7 

i-7 

.8 

1.8 

•9 

2.0 

2.0 

90 

.6 

.6 

•  7 

i-7 

.8 

1.8 

i-9 

2.0 

2.0 

2.1 

2.1 

92 

•  7 

•  7 

.8 

1.8 

•9 

i-9 

2.0 

2.1 

2.1 

2.2 

2-3 

94 

.8 

.8 

•  9 

i-9 

2.O 

2.0 

2.  I 

2.2 

2.2 

2-3 

2.4 

96 

•9 

•9 

2.O 

2.O 

2.1 

2.2 

2-3 

2-3 

2.4 

2-5 

2-5 

98 

2  0 

2.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.2 

2-3 

2.4 

2-4 

2-5 

2.6 

2.7 

TOO 

2.1 

2.2 

2.2 

2-3 

2-3 

2.4 

2-5 

2.6 

2.7 

2.7 

2.8 

105 

2-4 

2.4 

2-5 

2.6 

2.6 

2.7 

2.8 

2.9 

3-o 

3-i 

3-2 

no 

2.6 

2.7 

2.8 

2.8 

2.9 

30 

3-i 

3-2 

3-3 

3-4 

3-5 

H5 

2.9 

2.9 

3-o 

3-i 

3-2 

3-3 

3-4 

3-5 

3-6 

3-8 

3-9 

120 

3-1 

3-2 

3-3 

3-4 

3-5 

3-6 

3-7 

3-8 

3-9 

4.0 

4-2 

NOTE: — The  corrections  for  temperatures  below  60°  F.  are  in  the  same 
proportion  for  lubricating  oils  as  shown  for  temperatures  above  60°  F. ,  but 
in  this  case  the  correction  is  to  be  added. 


TABLES 


221 


TABLE  OF  CENTIGRADE  AND  FAHRENHEIT  DEGREES. 
Temp.  Fahr.  =     *—  X  temp.  C.  -f  32°. 

O 

Temp.  C.        =  -!-  (temp.  F.  —32°). 


°C.          °F. 

°C. 

°F. 

°C. 

°F. 

—40 

—40 

100 

212 

250 

482 

—35 

—  3* 

105 

221 

255 

491 

—30 

—  22 

no 

230 

260 

500 

—25 

—  13 

115 

239 

265 

509 

—  20 

4 

120 

248 

270 

518 

—  15 

-f  5 

125 

257 

275 

527 

IO 

14 

I30 

266 

280 

536 

—  5 

23 

135 

275 

285 

545 

0 

32 

140 

284 

290 

554 

-f  5 

4i 

145 

293 

295 

-  563 

IO 

50 

150 

302 

300 

572 

15 

59 

J55 

311 

.  305 

58i 

20 

68 

160 

320 

310 

590 

25 

77 

165 

329 

315 

599 

3° 

86 

170 

338 

320 

608 

35 

95 

175 

347 

325 

617 

40 

104  - 

1  80 

356 

330 

626 

45 

«3 

185 

365 

335 

635 

50 

122 

190 

374 

340 

644 

55 

131 

195 

383 

345 

653 

60 

140 

200 

392 

350 

662 

65 

149 

205 

401 

355 

671 

70 

158 

2IO 

410 

360 

680 

75 

I67 

215 

419 

365 

689  ' 

80 

I76 

2  2O 

428 

370 

698 

85 

185 

225 

437 

375 

707 

90 

194 

230 

446 

380 

716 

95 

203 

235 

455 

385 

725 

24O 

464 

390 

734 

245 

473 

395 

743 

400 

752 

By  noting  that  5°  C.  are  exactly  equal  to  9°  F.,  and  that  the  above  fig- 
ures are  all  even  numbers  (not  rounded  off)  the  exact  temperature  can  be 
readily  read  for  either  thermometer. 


WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  OILS  AND  HEAVY  CHEMICALS. 
Compiled    from     New  York   market   quotations   as  given  in  the  Oil, 
Paint  &  Drug  Reporter.     On  account  of  the  high  prices  prevailing,  prices 
are  also  given  for  normal  conditions. 


June  23, 

1917 

August  i, 
1914 

Mineral  Lubricating  Oils: 
Black,  reduced,  29°!*.,  25-30°  cold  test,  gal..  .. 
"             "          2Q°B     \^°  C   T  .  . 

I3X-I4 
14     -15 
13     -14 
21      -26 

18    -19 
26    -31 

15     -19 

10^-14^ 

21^-22 
19^-20 
29^-30 
21^-22 
18^-19 

18     -19 
24    -25 
23^-24 
23     -23^ 

21       -22 

28    -35 

9^-10 
17    -18 
.90- 
.47-1.49 

•43-1-45 
.70- 
.55-1.60 
15     -15^ 
23     -24 
i.5i-i-55 
1.46-1.50 

86    -88 
90    -92 

1.32-1.33 
80    -85 

93     -95 
22     -23 

21      -22 

15-       -I5-25 
J.IO- 
16.40- 
I.I7- 

1.18- 
1-65-1-75 

I3X-I4 
14     -14/2 

13      -13^ 

21^-33 
18    -26 

27    -34 
14^-25 
23    -23^ 
18    -19 
16    -16^ 
27     -28 

15     -15^ 
12^-13 
15     -16 
18    -19 
17     -18 

!6      -I7 

14    -15 

21      -22 

3     -  3K 
6    -  7 

92     -93 
62     -63 
5i     -52 
96     -98 
64    -65 
6%--  7 
8|<-io^ 

64    -65 
62     -63 

32     -34 
37    -38 
70    - 
40    -45 
48 

8    -  S*/2 

10^-11^ 

6.35-6.40 

Cylinder  light  filtered  

'  '           dark  filtered  

'  '           extra  cold  test  

Neutral    \Ve^t  Virginia  29  gravity  

"           Red 

"         N  o    1  60  

'  '         No    1  10  

'  '         No   80  

"         filtered  

Animal  Oils: 

Horse  ••  

«        No     2 

Fish  Oils: 

Sperm   bleached    winter   38°  C   T  

Vegetable  Oils: 
Castor    No    ^     Ib    

44           prime  summer  yellow,  loo-lbs  

4  l        42 

6.50-6.75 

59    - 
60    - 
78    -82 

WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  OILS  AND  HEAVY  CHEMICALS.     (Continued.) 


June  23, 

1917 

August  i, 

1914 

Vegetable  Oils:     (Continued.) 
Olive   foots  Ib    .... 

77  I/ 

TQ           ,«l/ 

//2 
7              71/ 

/               //4 

62      68 

Rapeseed   refined  

CQ 

*  '          blown  

1-4O    A-O0 
T    ^O—  T    ^s 

oy 
6^ 

Rosin  oil   first  rectified  

1O<~^1-OO 
-  -       T.6 

uo 

-27 

66 

-60 

Soya  bean    Manchuria   spot   barrels  (Ib  )  

14  */£    I  ^ 

61/ 

Grease,  Naval  Stores,  Etc. 

17 

IorZ 

TC               TClZ 

«;^     6V* 

Lard    Middle  West 

17  I/ 

10       37 
6  1/ 

Rosin,  common  to  good  strained,  28o-lbs.  

1//4 
6.15- 

J7         — 

u/g 

4    -4.  10 

d.7  5^-48 

Chemicals,  Heazy: 

T    ^O—  2   2^ 

I                 I   IO 

Soda  ash   light  s8%    in  bags                      • 

i.^u—  4.4$ 
2  6^    1  O^ 

O  C7  I/    Q  fio  ^ 

67^—6  87  *•£ 

I  42  ^<»     T  47  '/<» 

Potash   caustic   88-92%   Ib      ...        

84      86 

4J/4 

4/2 

PETROLEUM  STATISTICS. 

(From  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  Reports. ) 
Rank  of  Petroleum-Producing  States  based  on  quantity  of  oil  marketed 
(1915)  with  an  estimate  of  production  for  1916.     (Barrel  =  42  gallons.) 


State 

Rank, 
1915 

Quantity 
(barrels) 
1915 

Percentage 
1915 

Production  (Est.) 
(barrels) 
1916 

I 
2 

3 

4 

6 

7 
8 

9 

IO 

ii 

12 
13 
14 
15 

1  6 

17 

97,915,243 
86,591,  535 
24,942,701 
19,041,695 

18,191,539 
9,264,798 

7,838,705 
7,825,326 
4,245,525 
2,823,487 
887,778 
875.758 
437,274 
208,475 

14,265 

34.83 
30.81 
8.87 
6-77 
6-47 
3.30 
2.79 
2.78 
LSI 

I.OO 

0.32 
0.31 
0.16 

I       0.08 

IO5,OOO,OOO 
89,000,000 
26,000,000 
16,500,000 
15,800,000 
8,500,000 
8,OOO,OOO 
7,400,000 
6,300,000 
6,500,000 
900,000 
1,000,000 
I,2OO,OOO 
190,000 

10,000 

Texas 

Ohio   

\Vvotning  

New  York 

A  loctfl 

281,104,104 

IOO.OO 

292,300,000 

224 


AMERICAN   LUBRICANTS 


PETROLEUM  STATISTICS.     (Continued.} 
Rank  of  Petroleum-Producing  States  based  on  value  of  oil  marketed  (1915). 


States 

Rank 

Value 

Percentage 

I 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

8 
9 

10 

ii 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 

$56,706,133 

36,558,439 
18,655,850 
14,468,278    - 
13,026,925 

12,431.353 
10,804,653 
10,061,493 
2,217,018 
1,702,891 

i,390,325 
8i3,395 
4i8,357 
183,485 

24,295 

31.60 
20.37 
10.40 
8.06 
7.26 

6-93 
6.O2 

5.61 

1.24 

0.95 
0.77 

0-45 
0.23 

O.IO 
O.OI 

OViio 

179,462,890 

100.00 

World  Production  of  Crude  Petroleum. 


Country 

Production,  1915 

Total  production,  1857-1915 

Barrels  of  42 
gallons 

Percentage 
of  total 

Barrels  of  42 
gallons 

Percentage 
of  total 

United  States  

1  281,  104,  104 
68,548,062 
32,910,508 
12,386,808 
12,029,913 
8,202,674 
4,158,899 
3,118,464 
2,487,251 
995,764 
'   375o,ooo 
516,120 
221,768 
215,464 
39,548 

3IO,OOO 

65.73 
16.03 
7.69 
2.90 
2.8l 
1.92 
0.97 

0-73 
0.58 
0.23 

0.18 

O.I2 
0.05 
0.05 

J     O.OI 

13,6i6,56i,244 
1,690,781,907 
123,270,377 

148,999,921 
130,012,387 

81,592,385 
136,032,500 
30,169,622 
16,794,223 

i3,96i,333 
2,819,430 
1,033,121 
1,308,496 

23,709,074 
(            842,020 
/            372,ooo 

60.09 
28.09 
2.05 
2.48 
2.16 
1.36 
2.26 
0.50 
0.28( 

0.23' 

0.05 

0.02 
O.O2 

0-39 
O.OI 
O.OI 

100.00 

Dutch  East  Indies2... 

riflliria 

Japan  and  Formosa  •  • 
Peru 

Trinidad  

427,695,347 

IOO.OO 

6,018,260,040 

1  Marketed  production.     2  Includes  British  Borneo.     3  Estimated. 


TABLES 


225 


PETROLEUM  STATISTICS.    (Continued.) 

ACTUAL  PRODUCTION  AND  POSSIBLE  FUTURE  SUPPLY  OF  PETROLEUM 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  following  table  was  compiled  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
and  furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  Congress,  Feb.,  1916  (See 
Senate  Document  310,  and  Mineral  Resources,  1915,  Pt.  II  of  the  Geological 
Survey). 


Field 

Production,  1859-1915 

Possible 
future 
production 
(millions  of 
barrels) 

Millions  of 
barrels 

Estimated 
percentage 
of  total 
exhaustion 

1,150 
438 
251 
617 
44 
58 
236 
ii 

12 
835 

70 
93 
51 
25 

22 

3 

2 
26 

48l 
31 
244 
1,874 
484 
124 
1,500 
6 
540 
2,345 

NortTi  TpTra<5 

riiilf  poacfr 

3,652 

32 

7,629 

MINERAL  OILS  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1914  AND  1915. 


1914 


1915 


Quantity 
(gallons) 

Value 

Quantity 
(gallons) 

Value 

Crurlf 

*    A    Qrg  8^8 

1  28  26^  069 

$4  282  827 

••••*•+»  /oD»oi>o 
2OQ  6Q2  655 

25  288  414. 

281,609,081 

•1^,885,047 

Illuminating  
Lubricating  and 

1,010,449,253 
IQI  647  57O 

64,112,772 

26  ^16  ^i^ 

836,958,665 
2-iq  678  725 

49,988,597 

12  A^Q  6dl 

7O7  508  621 

IQ  224  25O 

812  216  209 

22  ^2S   S57 

2,240,033,652 

i39,9°°,587 

2,328,725,749 

142,941,669 

INDEX. 


Acid,  determination  of  free,  122-123, 
156. 

effect  of,  on  metals,  123. 

free  fatty,  141,  168,  169. 

number,  122,  156. 

oleic,  123,  126. 

permissible,  in  oils,  122. 

sulphuric,  122,  123. 
Aeroplane  lubrication,  39. 
Air  compressor  oils,  16,  96-97. 

carbonization  of,  97. 

for  Diesel  engine,  40-41. 

for  electric  cars,  57,  97. 

for  locomotives,  71,  97. 

working  temperatures  of,  97. 
Aluminum    soaps,     (see    Soaps    and 

Greases). 
Ammonia  compressors,  98. 

cylinder  oil,  specifications  for,  173. 
Analyses  of  car  oils,  80. 

cylinder  oils,  steam,  74,  65. 

gasoline,  208,  209-210. 

greases,  132,  133. 

kerosene,  212-214. 

loom  oils,  87. 

motor  oils,  automobile,  48. 

spindle  oils,  85. 
Analysis,  methods,  (see  Tests,  Fixed 

Oils,  Greases,  etc.). 
Animal    oils,    149-151.       (See    Fixed 

Oils.) 

Appalachian  oil  field,  2. 
Apparatus,  (see  Conradson). 
Appearance  of  oils,  116. 
Asbestos  fiber  in  grease,  52. 
Ash  in  oils,   123. 

in  greases,  141. 
Asphalt  base  oils,  2,  4. 
Automobile  lubrication,  42-53       (see 
also  Motor  oils,  Internal  combus- 
tion engines,  etc.). 

carbon  deposits  in,  43-46. 

chart,  49. 

chasis,   51-52. 

differential,  52. 

motor,  42-51. 

temperature  conditions  in  43-44. 

transmission,  51. 

Axle   grease,    131-132. 
16 


B 

Ball  bearings,  lubrication  of,  33. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  specifica- 
tions, 174,  191. 

Baume  gravity,   (see  Gravity). 
Bearings,  design  of,  30,  32. 
ball,  lubrication  of,  33. 
roller,  lubrication  of,  33,  52. 
Bechi's    silver    nitrate    test,    157-158, 

160,  162. 

Belt  conveyors,  (see  Conveyors). 
Belts,   lubrication  of,  93. 
Black  fish  oil,  150. 
Black  oil,  (see  Car  Oils). 
Blended  oils,  17. 

viscosity  of,  18. 
Blown  oils,  26,   148. 
Body  of  oils,  22.     (See  Viscosity.) 
Boiler    compound,    specification    for, 

187. 

Bone  oil,  149,  150. 
Bureau  of  Mines  flash  tester,  113. 
specifications  for  fuel  oils,  203-204. 
specifications   for  gasoline,  210. 
Bureau  of  Standards,   (see  Herschel, 

Waidner,  Waters,  etc.). 
Burning  oils,   (see  Kerosene), 
specifications  for,   190-196. 
headlight  oil,    (see  150°  fire  test 

oil). 

150°  fire  test  oil,  191,  194,  196. 
kerosene,  191,  214-215. 
long  time  burning  oil,   193. 
mineral    seal   oil,    (see   300°    fire 

test  oil). 

mineral  sperm  oil,   190. 
300°  fire  test  oil,  102,  194,  195. 
Burning  point,   (see  Fire  test). 
Burning  test,   (see  Kerosene). 

C 

Cables,  lubrication  of,  56,  96,  98. 

California  petroleum,  3. 

Calorific  power  of  oils,  20,  204,  210, 

211. 

Canadian  petroleum,  2. 
Capillarity  of  oils,  25. 
Car  oils,  17,  78-81. 

analyses  of,  80. 

for  electric  cars,  57. 

for  mine  cars,  97-98. 

for  railway  cars,  80-81. 

for   rolling   mills,   96. 

specifications   for,    180. 


228 


INDEX 


Carbon  deposits,  45-46. 
Carbon  residue  test,  125-126. 
Carbon  test,   (see  Heat  test). 
Carbon,   in  mineral   oils,   3,    108. 
Carbonization  of  motor  oils,  43-46. 

of  air  compressor  oils,  97. 

of  cylinder  oils,  67,  71,  73. 
Carbonization  test,   (see  Heat  test). 
Castor  oil,  as  a  lubricant,  26,  145. 

constants  of,  149. 

for  aeroplanes,  39. 

mineral,  123,  131. 

properties   of,    144-145. 

specifications  for,  159.  • 

viscosity  of,   153,  26. 
Centigrade   and    Fahrenheit   degrees, 

table  of,  221. 

Chains,  lubrication  of,  56,  96,  98. 
Chassis  lubrication,  51-52. 
Chart,  for  automobile  engine  lubrica- 
tion, 49. 

Chemical  composition,  of  mineral  oils, 
3-5- 

of  fixed  oils,  142-144. 
Chemicals,  wholesale  prices  of,  223. 
Chilling  point,  (see  Cold  test). 
Circulating  oil  systems,  23,  28-30. 
Cleveland  flash  tester,  in,  192. 
Cloud  test,  for  burning  oils,   192. 
Coal  tar  oils,  18. 

Coefficient  of  expansion  of  oils,  19. 
Coefficient  of  friction,  of  grease,  133, 

134,  185-186. 

Coke,  in  fire  distillation,  10,  II. 
Cold  test,  115-116,  176. 

by  Pennsylvania  Railroad  method, 
116. 

of  fatty  acids,  149. 

of  fixed  oils,  149,  152,  165. 

of  western  oils,   116. 
Color  of  oils,  116,  119. 
Color  tests,  for  rosin  and  cottonseed 
oils,  157.     (See  Bechi  and  Halp- 
hen  tests.) 

Comb  box  grease,  90,  131. 
Compounded  oils,  18.     (See  Cylinder 

oils   and   Marine   engine   oils.) 
Compressed  air  machinery,   97. 
Compressor  oils,    (see  Air  and  Am- 
monia compressor  oils). 
Conradson,     apparatus     for     testing 
cylinder  oils,  73-76. 

carbon  residue  test,   125-126. 

emulsification  test,  121. 

superheated  steam  tests,  74. 


Consistency  of  greases,  138,  133. 
Consumption  of  motor  oils,  50. 
Conveyors,   lubrication  of,  93. 
Cooling  effect  of  oils,   19,  26. 
Corn  oil,   145,    149. 
Corrosion  test,  on  metals,  123. 
Cost  of  oils,  57,  81,  222-223. 
Cotton  mills,  lubrication  of,  83-91. 

(See  Spindle  oils  and  Loom  oils.) 

cylinder  oils  for,  89. 

dynamo  oils   for,  90. 

general   lubrication    of,    88,    89. 

greases    for,   90-91. 

knitting  machines  in,  91. 

power  losses  in,  83. 

sewing  machines  in,  87. 

shafting  in,  89. 

turbine  oils  for,  89-90. 
Cotton  oil  mills,  lubrication  of,  93-94. 
Cottonseed  oil,  properties  of,  145. 

Bechi  test  for,  157-158,  162. 

blown,  148. 

constants  of,  149. 

Halphen  test  for,  157. 

specifications  for,   159. 
Cotton  waste,  for  car  journals,  78-80. 

specifications  for,  188. 
Cracking  of  oils,  (see  Distillation  and 

Gasoline). 

Crank  pins,  lubrication  of,  77. 
Crude    petroleum,     (see    Petroleum, 

crude). 

Cup  grease,  52,  90,  93,  129-130. 
Curve  grease,  57. 
Cutting  oils,  99. 

specifications  for,  160,  182-184. 
Cylinder  deposits,  66-67,  7*- 
Cylinder  grease,  65. 
Cylinder  oils,  motor,  (see  Motor  oils, 
Automobile   lubrication,    Internal 
combustion  engines,   etc.). 
Cylinder  oils,  steam,  18,  58-68,  70-76. 

analyses  of,  65,  74. 

analysis  of,  126. 

apparatus  for  testing,  73. 

carbonization  of,  67,  71,   73. 

Conradson's  tests  of,  73-76. 

emulsification  of,  121. 

feeding,  method  of,  60-62. 

fixed  oils  in,  18,  63,  64,  72,  126. 

for  cotton  mills,  89. 

for  ice  plants,  98. 

for  locomotives,   70-76. 

for  rolling  mills,  95. 

for  saturated  steam,  63,   70-71. 


INDEX 


229 


Cylinder  oils,   steam — (Continued) 

for  superheated  steam,  64,   71-76. 

poor  lubrication  with,  66. 

specifications   for,    172-176,    181. 
Cylinder  stocks,  9,  62-63. 

analyses  of,  65,  74. 

filtered,  16,  17. 

specifications  for,  175. 

steam  refined,   16. 

viscosity  of,  62. 

D 

Degras  oils,  148,  149. 

Demulsibility,    117-120. 

Deposits,  carbon,  45-46. 

Deposits,   in    steam    cylinders,   66-67, 

71- 

Design  of  bearings,  30-32. 
Dielectric  strength  of  oils,  55. 
Diesel  engine  oils,  39,  41. 
Differential    lubrication,    52. 
Distillation  of  petroleum,  7-10. 

by  fire,    10. 

by  steam,  7-9. 

yields  from,  n. 

Distillation  test,  of  gasoline,  197,  200, 
208. 

of  kerosene,  225. 

of  lubricating  oils,  126. 
Distilled  lubricating  oils,  9,  14-16. 
Dolphin  oil,    150. 
Drive  gears,  95. 
Drying  oils,   143. 
Dudley  pipette,  103,  104. 
Dynamos,  lubrication  of,  54-55,  90. 


Elaidin  test,  146. 

Electric  machinery,  lubrication  of,  54- 

dynamos  and  motors,  54-55,  90. 

elevators,  56. 

generators,  56. 

railways,  56-57. 

road  vehicles,  53. 

rotary  converters,  56. 

transformers,  oil  for,  55-56. 
Elevators,  lubrication  of,  56. 
Elliott  flash  tester,  212. 
Emulsification  test,  117-121. 

Conradson's  method,  121. 

Herschel's  method,    117-120. 

Phillips'  method,  120. 

of  steam  cylinder  oils,  121. 


Engine    oils,    15.      (See    Loom    oils, 

Turbine  oils,  etc.) 
specifications  for,  177-180. 
Engine  lubrication,  steam,  58-69,  70- 
78.     (See  Cylinder  oils,  Railway 
Lubrication,  Locomotives,  etc.) 
automobile,  42-51. 
internal  combustion,  35-41. 
Diesel,  39-41. 
general,  67. 
kerosene,   38. 
locomotive,  70-78. 
marine,  67-68. 
turbine,  68-69,  89. 
Engler  viscosimeter,    (see  Viscosim- 

eters). 
Engler    viscosity,    conversion    tables, 

218. 

Evaporation  test,   114-115. 
Evaporation  loss,  of  cylinder  oils,  75. 
of  motor  oils,  46. 
of  spindle  oils,  85. 
of  transformer  oils,  55,  56. 
Exhaustion  of  American  petroleum, 

i,  225. 

Exports  of  mineral  oils,  225. 
Expansion  of  mineral  oils,  19. 


Fahrenheit   and   Centigrade  degrees, 

table  of,  221. 

Fatty   acids,    determination   of    free, 
(see   Acid). 

occurrence  of,  142. 

recovery,  from  fixed  oils,  152-153. 

saturated  and  unsaturated,   143. 

solidification  point  of,  149. 
Fatty  oils,    (see   Fixed  oils). 
Fiber  grease,  130. 
Fillers  in  grease,  141. 
Films,  lubricating,  thickness  of,  33. 
Filters,  oil,  29,  32. 
Filtered  engine  oil,  tests  of,  30,  31. 
Fire  test,  114. 

Fish  oil,  specification  for,  159. 
Fixed  oils,  composition  of,  142-151. 

blowing  of,  148. 

constants  of  (table),  149. 

flash  point  of,  153. 

drying,  143. 

glycerine  in,  142. 

hydrogenation  of,  144. 

in  cylinder  oils,  18,  63,  64,  72,  126. 

in  mineral  oils,  126. 

iodine  number  of,  143-144,  154-155. 


230 


INDEX 


Fixed  oils — (Continued) 

Maumene  number  of,  155-156. 

non-drying,  143. 

recovery  of  acids  from,  152-153. 

refining  of,  144. 

refractive  index  of,  153. 

saponification  of,  143,  154. 

solidification  point  of,  152,  153. 

specifications  for,   159-171. 

testing  of,   152-158. 

viscosity   of,   26,    153. 
Flash  test,  determination  of,  110-114, 

175- 

of  fixed  oils,  153. 

of  grease,  138. 

of  kerosene,   192,  212. 

railroad  method  for,  175. 

thermometer  corrections  for,  114. 

value  of,  no-iii. 
Flash  testers,  results  with  open,  HI. 

Bureau  of  Mines',   113. 

Cleveland,  HI. 

Pensky-Martens,  113. 

simple,    IH-H2. 

Tagliabue,  HI,  192,  212. 
Flock  test,  for  burning  oils,  193. 
Flour  mills,  lubrication  of,  92-93. 
Force-feed  lubrication,  61-62. 
Free  fatty  acids,  156,   (see  Acid). 
Freezing    point    'of    oils,    (see    Cold 

test). 
Friction,  and  lubrication,  21-34. 

and  temperature,  26. 

and  viscosity,  24-25,   107. 

fluid,  22. 

solid,  21. 
Fuel  oils,  17,  2ii. 

specifications  for,  201-205. 


Gallons  per  pound   (table),  219. 
Garbage  grease,   151. 
Gas  engine  oil,  37. 

specifications  for,  177. 
Gasoline,  9,  13,  206-211. 

analyses  of,  208,  209-210. 

casing-head,  207-209. 

cracked,  207. 

distillation  test  for,  197,  200,  208. 

non-volatile  oils,  198,  199. 

power  from,  207,  210. 

special,  211. 

specifications  for,  197-201,  210-211. 

straight  refinery,  206,  209. 

synthetic,  207. 


types  of,  13,  206-207,  209-210. 

yield  of,   11. 

Gasoline  engines,  (see  Automobile 
engines,  Internal  combustion  en- 
gines, Motor  oils,  etc). 

stationary,  36. 

tractors,  38. 

Gasoline  test,  for  tar,  125,  180. 
Gear  grease,  52,  57,  130,  95. 
Generators,  electric,  56. 
Geological   Survey,  specifications  for 
fuel  oil,  204. 

report  on  exhaustion  of  petroleum, 
i,  225. 

statistics,  I,  223-225. 
Gill,  fererence  to,  25. 
Gillette,  on  greases,  133-135,  137,  138. 

analyses  of  greases,  133. 
Glycerine  in  fatty  oils,  142. 
Graphite,  as  a  lubricant,  33-34,  52,  130, 
135. 

grease,  specifications  for,  186. 

specifications  for,  187. 
Gravity,  determination  of,  108-110. 

Baume  and  specific,  table,  219. 

Baume,    corrections    for    tempera- 
ture,  table,  220. 

and  pounds  per  gallon,  table,  219. 

of  fixed  oils,  149,  152. 

significance  of,   108-110. 

temperature  correction  for,  no,  152, 

220. 
Greases,  (see  Tests,  Fixed  oils,  etc.). 

analyses  of,  132,  133. 

analysis  of,  136-141. 

ash  in,  141. 

axle,  131. 

comb  box,  90,   131. 

cold  neck,  95. 

consistency  of,  138. 

cup,  129-130,  52,  90,  93. 

curve,  57. 

cylinder,  65. 

fiber,  130. 

filler  in,    141. 

flash  test  of,  138. 

free  acid  in,  141. 

friction  tests  of,  134,  185,  186, 

gear,  52,  130. 

Gillette  on,  137,  138,  133-135- 

hot  neck,  94~95- 

lime,  129-130. 

locomotive  journal,  76. 

lubrication  with,  33,   129. 

melting  point  of,  136-138. 


INDEX 


231 


Greases — (Continued) 

oils  in,  139. 

petroleum,  132. 

pin,  crank,  77-78. 

preliminary  examination  of,  136. 

soaps  in,  139-141. 

specifications  for,  185-186. 

transmission,    51. 

water  in,  129,  138. 
Gulf  oil  field,  3. 
Gumming  test,   (see  Gasoline  test). 

H 

Halphen  test,   157. 

Hanus    iodine    number,    (see    Iodine 
number). 

Hardening  of  oils,  144. 

Heat  of  combustion  of  oils,  20,  204, 
210,  211. 

Heat  test,  45,  124-125. 

Heat,  specific,  of  oils,  19. 

Heating  and  viscosity,   (see  Viscosi- 
ty). 

Headlight  oil,   (see  Burning  oils  and 
Kerosene). 

Herschel,  29,  69,  117-120. 

High-speed  lubrication,  23,  51. 
engine  oil,  specifications  for,  178. 

Holde,  56,  103,  121,  130. 

Horse  oil,  149,  150. 

Horse-power  from  fuels,  41,  207,  210. 

Hot  neck  rolls,  lubrication  of,  94,  95. 

Hiibl  iodine  number,  155. 

Hydraulic  presses,  94. 

Hydrocarbons,  3,  4,  10. 

Hydrogenation  of  oils,  144. 

Hydrometers,   108. 

method  of  reading,  109. 


Ice  machinery*,  lubrication  of,  98. 
Illuminating   oils,    (see   Burning  oils 

and  Kerosene). 

Internal  combustion  engines,  35-41. 
(See    Automobile    lubrication    and 

Motor   oils.) 
Iodine    number,    of    air    compressor 

oils,  41. 

of  fixed  oils,  table,  141. 
of  gasoline,  208. 
of  kerosene,  214-215. 
of  mineral  oils,   127. 
determination  of,  154-155. 
significance  of,  143. 


Journals,  locomotive,   lubrication  of, 

76. 

of  electric  cars,  57. 
of  railway  cars,  78-81.      (See  Car 

oils.) 


Kerosene,  9,  13,  212-216.     (See  Burn- 
ing oils.) 

analyses    of,    212-214. 

burning  test  of,  191,  193-194,  215. 

distillation  test  of,  215. 

engines,  38,  177. 

flash  test  of,   192,  212. 

iodine  number  of,  214,  215. 

photometric   test   of,    191-192,   213, 
214. 

residue  test  of,  213. 

specifications   for,    191,  214-215. 

sulphur  in,  214. 

tractors,  38,  215. 

viscosity  of,  214. 

yield  of,  n. 

Knitting  mills,  lubrication  of,  91. 
Knocking,  in  automobile  engines,  46. 


Lace  machines,  lubrication  of,  87. 

Lard,   150. 

Lard  oil,  properties  of,  150. 

constants  of,  149. 

mineral,  specifications  for,  183. 

specifications  for,   160-163. 

viscosity  of,   153. 

Lead  soaps,  (see  Soaps  and  Greases). 
Liebermann-Storch  reaction,  157,  165. 
Lime  soaps,  in  greases,  129-130. 
Linseed  oil,  145,  149. 

specifications  for,  163-165. 
Locomotives,    lubrication    of,    7°~78. 
(See  Cylinder  oils,  etc.) 

air  compressors,  71,  97. 

carbonization  in,  67,   71,   73. 

general  lubrication  of,  78. 

journals,  76. 

superheater,  71-76. 
Loom  oils,  15,  87. 

analyses  of,  87. 

Lubricating  greases,  (see  Greases). 
Lubricating  oils,  western,  II,  25,  62. 
Lubricators,  sight-feed,  60-61. 

force-feed,  61-62. 


232 


INDEX 


Lubrication,  oil,  26-27. 
and     friction,     (see     Friction    and 

Viscosity), 
grease,  33. 

M 

Mabery,  on  graphite,  34. 

on  viscosity,  4-5. 
Machine  oil,   specifications   for,    178- 

179- 

Marcusson,  138. 
Marine  engine  oils,  67-68. 

specifications  for,  179. 
Maumene  number,   determination   of 
155-156. 

of  cylinder  oils,   156. 

of  fixed  oils,  table,  149. 

of  mineral  oils,  127,  156. 
Mechanical  stresses,  21. 
Mechanical  tests,  27,   107. 
Melting  point,  of  fats,  149,  152. 

of  greases,  136-138. 
Menhadin  oil,   149,   150. 

specifications  for,  159. 
Mexican  oils,  3. 
Mica  as  a  lubricant,  34,  52,  130. 
Mid-Continent  petroleum,  2. 
Mine  cars,  lubrication  of,  97-98. 
Mine  machinery,   lubrication   of,   97- 

98. 
Mineral  castor  oil,   123,  131! 

lard  oil,  specifications  for,  183. 

seal  oil,  14.     (See  Burning  oils  and 
Kerosene.) 

sperm  oil,    14.      (See  Burning  oils 
and  Kerosene.) 

sperm  oil,  specifications  for,  190. 
Mineral  oils,  advantages  of,  19. 

coefficient  of  expansion  of,  19. 

heat  of  combustion  of,  20,  204,  210, 
211. 

separation  of,  from  fixed  oils,  126. 

specific  heat  of,  19. 
Mixed  oils,   17-18. 
Moisture,    (see  Water). 
Moore,  on  air  compressor  oils,  41. 
Motor  boats,  lubrication  of,  37. 
Motor    lubrication,    15,    42-51,    35-41. 
(See  Automobile  lubrication  and 
Internal  combustion  engines.) 

chart,  49. 

mechanical  considerations,  42. 

temperature  conditions,  43,  44. 
Motor  oils,  analyses  of,  48. 

carbonization  of,  43-46. 


consumption  of,  50. 

specifications  for,  47,  177-179. 

tests  of,  46-47. 

Motors,  electric,  lubrication  of,  54,  90. 
Motorcycle  lubrication,  37. 
Mule  spindles,  lubrication  of,  86. 

N 

Naphtha,    (see   Gasoline). 

Naphthenes,  4. 

Navy  Department  specifications,  159, 

160,  163-167,  171,  182-191,  197. 
Neatsfoot  oil,  149,  150. 
specifications  for,  165. 
viscosity  of,  153. 
Neutral  oils,  14-15. 

specifications  for,  180. 
Non-carbonizing  gas  engine  oil,  speci- 
fication for,   177. 
Non-fluid  oil,  90,  131,  134. 
Non-viscous  oils,  14, 
Non-volatile  oils  in  gasoline,  198,  199. 
Norfolk   &   Western    Railway   speci- 
fications,  160,   167,  193,  198. 
North  Carolina  residue  test  for  kero- 
sene, 213. 


Oil   circulating   systems,   23,   27-30. 

Oil   feeders,    (see  Lubricators). 

Oil  filtering  systems,  29,  32. 

Oil  lubrication,  26-27. 

Oil   seal,   in   automobile   engines,   35- 

36-  . 

Oil  stains  on  fabrics,  86-87. 
Oil  testing  machines,  27,  107. 
Oiliness,    (see  Viscosity). 
Oils,     animal     and     vegetable,     (see 
Fixed  oils). 

blended,   17. 

blown,  148. 

compounded,  18. 

mixed,  17. 

purity  of,  27. 
Olefins,   10. 
Olive  oil,  146,  149. 


Packing      materials,       (see      Cotton 

Waste). 

Palm  oil,  146,   149. 
Paraffin  base  oils,  2,  3. 
Paraffin  oils,  14. 

specifications  for,  180. 
Paraffin  wax,  16. 


INDEX 


233 


Peanut  oil,  146,  149. 

Pennsylvania  petroleum,  composition 

of,  3,  4- 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  specifications, 

161,  168,  180-181,  194. 
Pensky-Martens  flash  tester,  113. 
Petrolatum,  17. 
Petroleum,  crude,  1-6. 

Canadian,  2. 

characteristics  of,  1-2. 

chemistry  of,  3. 

distillation  of,  7-10. 

exhaustion  of,  I,  225. 

exports  of,  225. 

field  production,  5,  6. 

fields  in  United   States,  2. 

future  supplies,  19,  225. 

Mexican,  3. 

origin  of,  5. 

Pennsylvania,  composition  of,  3,  4. 

producing  States,  223-224. 

products  from,  13-20. 

refining  of,  7-12. 

shift  in  production,  I. 

statistics,   I,  223-225. 

value  of,  224. 

\Yestern,   n,  25,  62. 

yields  from,  II. 
Petroleum  grease,  132. 
Philadelphia     &     Reading     Railway 

specifications,  175-176,  184. 
Photometric  test,   (see  Kerosene). 
Pickers,  lubrication  of,  88. 
Pin  grease,  for  locomotives,  77. 
Pneumatic   tools,    lubrication   of,   97, 

98. 

Pounds  per  gallon,  table,  219. 
Poor  lubrication  of  steam  cylinders, 

66. 

Porpoise  oil,   150. 
Pour  test,  (see  Cold  test). 
Power    from    gasoline,    etc.,   41,   207, 

210. 
Power  losses,  from  stresses,  21. 

in  cotton  mills,  83. 
Presses,  hydraulic,  94. 

printing,  98-99. 
Pressure  film,  (see  Film). 
Printing  presses,   lubrication   of,  98- 

.  99- 
Prices  of  oils  and  chemicals,  222-223. 

Production  of  petroleum,  statistics,  I, 

223-225. 
Properties   of   animal   and   vegetable 

Oils,   (see  Fixed  oils,  etc.). 


Properties,   special,   of   mineral   oils, 

19-20. 

Pulleys,   size  of,  21. 
Pyknometer,  no. 


Quarry  machinery,  lubrication  of,  70- 
82. 


Railway  lubrication,  steam,  70-82. 
(See  Locomotives,  Cylinder  oils, 
Car  oils,  etc.) 

electric,  56-58. 
Railway  cars,  lubrication  of,  78-80. 

car  oils,  80-81. 

engine  lubrication,  general,  78. 

locomotive  crank  pins,  77. 

locomotive  cylinders,  70-71. 

locomotive  journals,  76~77- 

methods  of  testing,  (see  Tests). 

oil  supplies,  81. 

section  cars,  37. 

shop   oil,  81. 

superheater,  71-76. 
Rape  oil,  146-147,  149. 

blown,  148. 

in  cylinder  oils,  63. 

in  marine  engine  oils,  68,  147,  179. 

viscosity  of,  153. 
Rapeseed  oil,  (see  Rape  oil). 
Red  engine  oil,  (see  Engine  oil,  etc.). 
Reduced  oils,  14. 

Redwood  viscosity,  compared  to  Say- 
bolt  and  Engler  viscosities,  218. 
Refined  products  from  petroleum,  13- 

20. 

Refining,  petroleum,  7-12. 
Refractive  index,  153. 
Reichert-Meissl  number,    156-157. 
Refrigerating  machinery,  98,  173. 
Residue  test,  of  kerosene,  213. 

of  lubricating  oils,  125-126. 
Ring  spindles,  lubrication  of,  83-86. 
Roll  gears,  95. 
Roll  necks,  94-95. 
Roller  bearings,  33,  52. 
Roller  mills,   (see  Flour  mills). 
Rolling  mills,  lubrication  of,  94-96. 
Ropes,  hoisting  56,  96,  98. 
Rosin  oil,  properties  of,  18,  147-148. 

acids  in,  147. 

constants  of,  149. 

detection  of,  147-148,  157,  165. 

flash  test  of,  147. 

for  transformers,  56. 


234 


INDEX 


Rosin   oil    grease,    131-132,    134,    135, 

(See  Axle  grease,  Grease,  etc.) 
analyses  of,  133. 
manufacture  of,  132. 
Rotary  converters,  lubrication  of,  56. 
Rubbing  speeds,  23,  51.     (See  Fric- 
tion.) 


Saponifiable  fats,  (see  Fixed  oils). 
Saponification,  143. 

qualitative  test,  154. 
Saponification    value,     determination 
of,  154. 

of  fixed  oils,   table,  149. 
Saturated  steam  conditions,  58. 
Saybolt  viscosimeter,   (see  Viscosim- 
eters). 

viscosity  tables,  218. 
Screw  cutting  oils,  specifications  for, 

184.     (See  Cutting  oils.) 
Seaboard  Air  Line  Railway  specifica- 
tions, 163,  170,  196,  201. 
Seal   oil,   149,   150. 

mineral,  14.     (See  Burning  oils  and 

Kerosene.) 
Section  cars,  railroad,  lubrication  of, 

37- 
Semi-fluid    grease,     (see    Comb    box 

grease). 

Sewing  machines,  lubrication  of,  87. 
Shafting,   lubrication   of,  27,   89. 

alignment  of,  21. 
Shale  oil,  19. 
Shop  oil,  railroad,  81. 
Siezing  of  bearings,  21,  22. 
Silver  nitrate  test,  (see  Bechi  test). 
Soap,  determination  of,  123-124. 

and  water,  as  a  lubricant,  94,  97. 

in  greases,   139-141. 

in  oils,  123-124. 

lime,  129-130. 

soda,    130. 
Soap-thickened   oils,    105,   123,    131. 

greases,  129,  133.     (See  Greases.) 
Soda  grease,   130. 
Solid  friction,    (see  Friction). 
Solid  lubricants,   (see  Graphite,  Mica 

and   Greases). 

Solidified  oil,    (see  Non-fluid  oil). 
Solidifying  point,  (see  Cold  test). 

of  fatty  acids,  149. 

of  fixed  oils,  table,  149. 

method  for,  152. 
Soy  bean  oil,   148,   149. 


Specific  gravity,    (see  Gravity). 
Specific  heat  of  oils,   19. 
Specifications,    159-205. 

for  animal  oils,  159-171. 

for  boiler  compound,  187. 

for  burning  oils,  190-196,  214-215. 

for  car  oil,  180. 

for  cotton  waste,  188. 

for  cutting  oils,  182-184,  160,  163. 

for   cylinder  oils,    172-176,    181. 

for  engine  oils,   177-179,   180. 

for  fuel  oil,  201-205,  211. 

for  gasoline,  197-201,  210-211. 

for  graphite,   187. 

for  greases,   185-186. 

for  motor  oils,  47,   177-179. 

for  vegetable  oils,   159,  163-165. 
Speed  and  lubrication,  23,  51. 
Speeders,  lubrication  of,  88. 
Sperm  oil,  142,  149,  151. 

mineral,  14.     (See  Burning  oils.) 

specifications    for,    166-167. 

viscosity  of,   153,  26. 
Spindle  oils,  15,  83-87. 

analyses  of,  85. 

for  ring  spindles,  83-86. 

for  special  spindles,  86-87. 
Splash    lubrication,    of    automobiles, 

35,  42. 

Sponge  grease,   130. 
Spoolers, -lubrication  of,  88. 
Stainless  oils,  spindle,  86-87. 
Stains,  oil,  on  fabrics,  86-87. 
Stationary  gasoline  engines,  36. 
Statistics,  petroleum,  i,  223-225. 
Steam  temperatures,  saturated,  58. 
Steam   engine   lubrication,   58-69,   70- 
78.     (See  Cylinder  oils,  Locomo- 
tives, Railway  lubrication,  etc.) 
Sulphur,   in    oils,    determination    of 
127-128. 

in  kerosene,  214. 

Sulphuric  acid  in  oils,   (see  Acid). 
Superheater,  steam  conditions,  58-60. 

carbonization  of  oil  in,  67,  71,  73. 

locomotive  lubrication  of,   71-76. 
Supplies,  oil,  for  railroad,  81. 


Tables,  Baume  and  Specific  gravity, 
219.^ 

Baume  gravity  and  temperature, 
220. 

Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit,  221. 

chart,  for  automobile  engine  lubri- 
cation, 49. 


INDEX 


235 


Tables—  (Continued) 

prices  of  oils  and  chemicals,  222- 
223. 

statistics,  petroleum,  223-225. 

viscosity  conversion,  218. 
Tagliabue    flash    and    fire   tests,    192, 

212. 
Tallow,  149,  151. 

acids  in,  168-169. 

rendering,  167,  168. 

specifications  for,  167-171. 

viscosity  of,   153. 
Tallow  oil,  149,  151. 

acidless,  64. 
Tar,  in  cylinder  oils,  63. 

test  for,  (see  Gasoline  test). 
Temperature  conversion  tables,  221. 
Temperature,  corrections  for  Baume 

gravity,   tables,  220. 
Temperature  of  saturated  steam,  58. 

and  friction,  26. 

Temperature  and  Viscosity,  (see  Vis- 
cosity). 
Testing  machines,  27. 

for  grease,  134,  185-186. 
Tests,  of  oils,  100-121,  122-128.     (See 
Fixed  oils,   Greases,   etc.) 

acids,  free  in,   122. 

appearance  of,  116. 

ash  in,   123. 

Bechi  silver  nitrate,  157-158,  162. 

carbon    residue,    125-126. 

cold  test,   115-116,   176. 

color,   116. 

distillation,  gasoline,  197-200. 

distillation,  kerosene,  215. 

distillation,  lubricating  oil,  126. 

elaidin,  146. 

emulsification,  117-121. 

evaporation,    114. 

fire,  114. 

flash,  110-113,  153,  175. 

gasoline,   125. 

gravity,  108-110,  152. 

Halphen,  157. 

heat,  124. 

iodine,  number,  127,  154-155. 

Liebermann-Storch,  157,  165. 

Maumene  number,   127,   155. 

mechanical,  107. 

refractive  index,  153. 

rosin  oil,  157,  165. 

saponifiable  oil,  126. 

saponification  number,   143,  154. 

soaps  in,  123. 


solidification  point,  152,  165. 

sulphur,   127-128. 

viscosity,   100-106. 
Textile    mills,    lubrication    of,     (see 

Cotton  mills,  etc.). 
Theory  of  lubrication,   (see  Friction, 

Viscosity,  etc.). 
Thickened  oils,  blown,  148. 

soap,  18,  105,  131. 
Thickness  of  lubricating  film,  33. 
Thurston,   reference  to,  29,   107. 
Tractors,  lubrication  of,  38,  177. 

fuel  for,  215. 
Transformer  oil,  55-56. 
Transmission  lubrication,  51. 
Trucks,  motor,  lubrication  of,  49. 
Turbine,  lubrication,  68-69. 

circulating   systems    for,    28-31. 

in  cotton  mills,  89-90. 

oils,  16. 

oils,  emulsification  of,  117-121. 
Twitchel's  method  for  rosin  oil,  157. 

U 

Ubbelohde,  24-25,  107,  214. 
Undistilled  lubricating  oils,  16-17. 


Valve  oils,  (see  Cylinder  oils). 
Vaporization,  (see  Evaporation). 
Vaseline,  17. 

Vertical  electric  generators,  56. 
Vegetable  oils,   142-149,   159,   163-165. 

(See  Fixed  oils,  etc.) 
Viscosimeters,   101-107. 

Dudley,  103,  104. 

Engler,  102,  104. 

Redwood,  104. 

Saybolt  universal,  101,  102,  104. 

standardization  of,  106-107. 

Tagliabue,  104. 
Viscosity,  absolute,  24,  105. 

and  friction,  24-25,  100. 

and  temperature,  25-26,  65,  85,  87. 

conversion  tables,  218. 

definition  of,  23,  100. 

Engler,   ipi,  218. 

Engler  with  small  amounts  of  oil, 
103. 

fictitious,  105. 

of  alcohol-water  mixtures,  106. 

of  fixed  oils,  table,  153. 

of  oil  mixtures,  18. 

of  water,  107. 

Redwood,   218. 

Saybolt,  102,  218. 


236 


INDEX 


Viscous  neutrals,  14-15. 

Volatility    of    oils,    (see    Distillation 

and  Evaporatipn  tests,  and  Flash 

test). 

W 

Waidner,  106,  218. 

War   Department   specifications,    160, 

164-167,  172-173,  177-180,  190. 
Waste,  cotton,  specifications  for,  188. 

treatment  of,  78-80. 
Water,  and  alcohol  viscosity  of,  106, 

107. 

in  grease,  129,  138. 
in  transformer  oils,   55- 
Waters,    C.    E.,   on   carbonization   of 

motor  oils,  45-46. 
on  evaporation  test,   115. 
Wax,  paraffin,  16. 


Well  oil,  specifications  for,  180.     (See 
Car  oils.) 

Western  lubricating  oils,  n,  25,  62. 

Westphal  balance,  no. 

Whale  oil,  149,  151. 
specifications  for,  171. 

Wholesale  prices  of  oils  and  chemi- 
cals, 222-223. 

Wood  fiber  in  grease,  52. 

Worm    drives,    automobile,    lubrica- 
tion of,  52. 


Xylol  method   for  water  in  greases, 
138. 


Yields  from  different  crudes,   II. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


** 


20 


ISL 


,'22 


19662 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


